Peter I, most famously known as Peter the Great, reigned as Tsar of Russia, jointly from 1682–96 and solely from 1696–1725. In 1721, he was proclaimed Emperor (Imperator), marking a significant shift in the Russian monarchy. Born Pyotr Alekseyevich on June 9, 1672 (May 30, Old Style), in Moscow, Russia, and passing away on February 8, 1725 (January 28, Old Style), in St. Petersburg, Peter the Great was not just a ruler but a force of nature who dramatically reshaped Russia. He stands as one of the most pivotal figures in Russian history, remembered as a statesman, an organizer, and a reformer of unparalleled magnitude. His relentless drive to modernize Russia and propel it onto the world stage defines his legacy.
Peter’s lineage was rooted in the Romanov dynasty. He was the son of Tsar Alexis and his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. Unlike his half-brothers from Tsar Alexis’s first marriage, Peter was a robust and curious child. His mother’s upbringing under Artamon Sergeyevich Matveyev, who fostered an environment receptive to Western influences, likely played a crucial role in shaping Peter’s worldview from an early age.
Early Life and Path to Power
Peter’s childhood took an unexpected turn when his father, Tsar Alexis, died in 1676, leaving the young Peter, just four years old, in a complex political landscape. His elder half-brother, Fyodor III, ascended the throne, but real power resided with the Miloslavsky family, relatives of Fyodor’s mother. They deliberately sidelined Peter and his Naryshkin kin. When Fyodor III died without an heir in 1682, a power struggle erupted between the Miloslavsky and Naryshkin factions. The Miloslavskys advocated for Fyodor’s brother, the frail Ivan V, while the Naryshkins championed the energetic and intelligent Peter.
Representatives from various societal orders convened in the Kremlin and declared their support for Peter as Tsar. However, the Miloslavsky faction instigated a revolt by the Moscow streltsy, the Tsar’s bodyguard musketeers. This violent uprising resulted in the deaths of some of Peter’s supporters, including Matveyev. In a compromise, both Ivan V and Peter were proclaimed joint Tsars. Due to Ivan’s poor health and Peter’s youth, Sophia, Ivan’s 25-year-old sister, was appointed regent. Sophia, a shrewd and powerful figure, effectively took control of the government, excluding Peter from political affairs. Peter and his mother retreated to Preobrazhenskoye village near Moscow, where they lived under constant apprehension for their safety. These tumultuous early experiences profoundly impacted the young Peter, fostering a deep-seated distrust of the streltsy.
Sophia’s deliberate exclusion inadvertently benefited Peter in some ways. He was spared the traditional, rigid education of a Russian Tsar, growing up in a more open environment. While his initial tutor, Nikita Zotov, a former church clerk, could not fully satisfy Peter’s intellectual curiosity, Peter thrived in outdoor activities and developed a keen interest in military matters. His preferred pastimes included playing with weaponry and engaging in carpentry, blacksmithing, and even printing.
Preobrazhenskoye’s proximity to the nemetskaya sloboda, or “German colony,” a district where foreigners resided, proved formative. Interactions with its residents ignited Peter’s fascination with foreign cultures and technologies. The discovery of an old English sailboat sparked his lifelong passion for seafaring. Mathematics, fortification, and navigation became his primary intellectual pursuits. A model fortress was constructed for his amusement, and he established “play” troops, which in 1687 evolved into the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky Guards regiments – the foundation of the modern Russian Army.
In early 1689, his mother Natalya arranged Peter’s marriage to Eudoxia Lopukhina, a politically motivated move to signal Peter’s maturity and right to rule independently. However, the marriage was short-lived and loveless. Peter soon neglected Eudoxia, and in 1698, he forced her into a convent.
August 1689 witnessed another streltsy revolt, which Sophia attempted to exploit for a coup. This time, however, events favored Peter. He decisively removed Sophia from power, banishing her to the Novodevichy Convent, where she was forced to become a nun following a subsequent streltsy rebellion in 1698. Although Ivan V remained co-tsar nominally, actual governance shifted to Peter’s Naryshkin relatives until Ivan’s death in 1696. Meanwhile, Peter continued his military and naval pursuits, even overseeing the construction of Russia’s first seaworthy ships. These formative “games” were in reality invaluable training for the monumental tasks that lay ahead for the young Tsar.
Early Reign and Foreign Policy: Securing Access to the Sea
Upon assuming true leadership, Peter I inherited a vast Russian territory, yet it was geographically constrained, lacking direct access to the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, or the Baltic Sea. Gaining access to these vital waterways became the central objective of Peter’s early foreign policy.
The Azov Campaigns (1695–1696)
Peter’s initial strategic moves focused on the south, targeting Azov, a fortress controlled by the Crimean Tatars, vassals of the Ottoman Empire. The Azov campaigns of 1695 and 1696 served multiple purposes. They honored Russia’s commitments to the anti-Turkish Holy League of 1684 (comprising Austria, Poland, and Venice), commitments made during Sophia’s regency. Simultaneously, these campaigns aimed to secure Russia’s southern borders against Tatar incursions and pave the way for Black Sea access.
The first Azov campaign in 1695 ended in failure, but Peter’s resolve remained unshaken. He swiftly initiated the construction of a fleet at Voronezh, designed to navigate the Don River. In 1696, the second Azov campaign proved successful, and the fortress was captured. To solidify this victory, Taganrog was established on the Don estuary’s northern shore, and a large-scale navy-building program was launched. These early campaigns demonstrated Peter the Great’s ambition, his determination in the face of setbacks, and his strategic vision for transforming Russia into a major maritime power.
