The question of how the Apostle Peter died, specifically “Who Crucified Peter,” is a topic of significant interest for many seeking to understand early Christian history. While the Bible itself doesn’t explicitly detail the circumstances of Peter’s death, historical texts and early church traditions provide compelling insights. This article delves into the evidence surrounding Peter’s martyrdom, examining the claims of his crucifixion and the intriguing detail of whether it was upside down.
Biblical Hints and Early Church Testimonies of Peter’s Death
The New Testament offers a subtle yet crucial clue about Peter’s fate. In John 21:18-19, Jesus prophesies to Peter: “Very truly I tell you, when you were younger you dressed yourself and went where you wanted; but when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and someone else will dress you and lead you where you do not want to go.” John then clarifies, “(Jesus said this to indicate the kind of death by which Peter would glorify God.)” The phrase “stretch out your hands” has been widely interpreted by early Christians as a reference to crucifixion, aligning with the Roman practice of crucifixion where victims’ arms were outstretched.
Beyond the biblical text, early Church Fathers offer a more detailed picture. Eusebius of Caesarea, a 4th-century church historian, in his Ecclesiastical History, stated that all of Jesus’ apostles, except for John, were martyred. While evidence for some apostles is less robust, the accounts surrounding Peter and Paul’s martyrdom in Rome are substantial and consistently repeated across various sources.
Clement of Rome, writing around AD 90 in his Letter to the Corinthians, provides one of the earliest non-biblical references to Peter’s death. He mentions Peter enduring “many labors” and finally reaching his “place of glory” after delivering his testimony. While Clement doesn’t specify the method of execution, the language strongly implies a martyr’s death.
Ignatius of Antioch, in his Letter to the Romans (circa AD 110), further solidifies Peter’s connection to Rome, suggesting he served as a leader there. Irenaeus of Lyon, writing around AD 180, also affirms Peter’s ministry in Rome. Tertullian, around AD 195, directly links Peter’s death to crucifixion in Rome, stating that Rome is where “Peter had a passion like that of the Lord.” Dionysius of Corinth, around AD 200, speaks of the “planting” by Peter and Paul in Rome and Corinth, and their shared martyrdom in Italy.
By the time Eusebius compiled his Ecclesiastical History in the early 4th century, the tradition of Peter’s crucifixion in Rome, alongside Paul’s beheading, was already a well-established and “unanimous opinion of the church” for nearly two centuries.
The Upside-Down Crucifixion: Tradition vs. Historical Certainty
While the consensus among early church historians firmly places Peter’s martyrdom in Rome by crucifixion, the detail of him being crucified upside down is less definitively supported. The primary source for the upside-down crucifixion is the apocryphal Acts of Peter. Apocryphal texts, while sometimes containing historical kernels, are not considered canonical or as reliable as other early Christian writings.
The Acts of Peter narrates that Peter requested to be crucified upside down because he felt unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus Christ. Although this tradition became popular and is visually represented in Christian art and symbolism, its historical accuracy is debated.
Compared to the numerous, independent early sources confirming Peter’s crucifixion in Rome, the upside-down detail relies heavily on a single, less authoritative text. Therefore, while tradition holds this view, the historical evidence for it is considerably weaker. Scholars generally acknowledge the crucifixion in Rome as highly probable based on strong early testimony, but view the upside-down aspect as a later, less substantiated tradition.
St. Peter’s Basilica and the Tradition of His Burial
Tradition further holds that St. Peter’s body is buried beneath St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City, Rome. Interestingly, archaeological excavations conducted in the 20th century under the basilica uncovered a tomb believed to be Peter’s. Scientific analysis in the 1960s, led by Margherita Guarducci, on remains found at this site suggested they were of a man around 60 years old who died in the first century AD, aligning with the timeframe of Peter’s life and death.
It’s important to note that while this discovery is intriguing and lends some credence to the tradition, it doesn’t definitively prove these are Peter’s remains. For Christians, the location of Peter’s physical remains is not central to faith. However, the archaeological findings do contribute to the historical narrative and the long-standing tradition of Peter’s martyrdom and burial in Rome.
Conclusion: Peter’s Martyrdom in Rome
In conclusion, when considering “who crucified Peter,” historical evidence strongly indicates that Peter was indeed crucified in Rome. Multiple early Church Fathers, writing within a century or two of Peter’s death, consistently point to Rome as the location and crucifixion as the method of his martyrdom. These testimonies, combined with the biblical hint in John’s Gospel, create a compelling historical picture.
The detail of Peter being crucified upside down originates primarily from the apocryphal Acts of Peter, a less reliable source compared to the consistent early church writings. Therefore, while a popular tradition, the upside-down crucifixion is less historically certain.
Ultimately, the story of Peter’s martyrdom reflects his unwavering faith and dedication to his calling, culminating in his death in Rome, likely under the reign of Emperor Nero around AD 64. Whether upside down or not, Peter’s crucifixion stands as a powerful testament to his sacrifice and his significant role in the foundation of the early Christian Church.
