Saint Peter, one of the most prominent figures in the New Testament, is revered as a foundational Apostle of Christianity. Alongside Paul, his life and ministry have profoundly shaped Christian doctrine and tradition. Given his immense significance, it’s natural to assume that the Bible provides a detailed account of his death, similar to the extensive narratives surrounding the crucifixion of Jesus. However, this is not the case. While the New Testament chronicles many events in Peter’s life, including his pivotal role among the disciples and his interactions with Jesus, it remains surprisingly silent on the circumstances and timing of his death. This absence leads us to a compelling question: When Was Peter Crucified, and how do we know?
The New Testament offers detailed accounts of deaths of individuals arguably less central to the narrative, such as Judas Iscariot, Herod Agrippa, and even minor characters like Ananias and Sapphira. The martyrdom of Stephen is also vividly described in Acts 7. This makes the silence regarding Peter’s death, and indeed the deaths of all the Apostles except Judas, even more conspicuous. The Book of Acts concludes with Paul alive and preaching in Rome (Acts 28:30–31), without any mention of his or Peter’s fate thereafter.
This lack of biblical information has paved the way for traditions and legends to emerge over centuries, filling in the gaps and shaping popular understanding. Among the most prevalent stories are:
- Peter and Paul were executed around 64 CE during Nero’s reign, amidst a brutal persecution of Christians scapegoated for the Great Fire of Rome.
- Peter was crucified upside down, deeming himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus.
- Paul, as a Roman citizen, was beheaded rather than crucified.
These narratives, while widely circulated and believed, originate not from the New Testament itself, but from later Christian writings. To understand when Peter was crucified, we must delve into these extra-biblical sources and discern the historical kernels within the layers of tradition.
The Silence of Scripture: What the New Testament Doesn’t Tell Us
The absence of death narratives for Peter and Paul in the New Testament is striking. While the scriptures detail significant moments in their ministries, their final days remain unrecorded within the canonical texts. This omission is particularly noteworthy when compared to the detailed accounts of Jesus’ crucifixion and the deaths of other figures within the New Testament narrative. One might expect that the passing of such pivotal Apostles would warrant similar attention, yet the Bible is silent.
This silence has led to various interpretations. Some scholars suggest that the focus of the New Testament authors was on the lives and teachings of the Apostles, rather than their deaths. Others propose that by the time the Gospels and Acts were written, the Apostles had dispersed, and the specifics of their deaths were either unknown or considered less important than their ongoing legacy. Another possibility is that the early Church leaders, responsible for canonizing scripture, may have found the available death traditions unreliable or divergent, opting to exclude them from the official biblical record.
Whatever the reason, the New Testament’s silence necessitates looking beyond its pages to understand the traditions surrounding Peter’s crucifixion and the timeline associated with it. The answer to “when was Peter crucified” is not found within the Bible itself, pushing us to examine the wealth of early Christian literature that emerged in the centuries following the apostolic age.
Exploring the Traditions: When and Where Did Peter Die?
To answer the question “when was Peter crucified,” we must turn to a rich collection of early Christian texts that emerged after the New Testament period. These writings, while not canonical scripture, offer valuable insights into the beliefs and traditions circulating in the early Church. Among these are the Apostolic Acts, collections of stories about the Apostles, particularly Peter and Paul, which gained widespread popularity. Remarkably, there are fifteen different versions of the deaths of Peter and Paul documented by the 6th century CE, with over 25 significant references in other early Christian literature.
These numerous accounts, however, do not present a unified narrative. Instead, they offer a tapestry of sometimes conflicting details regarding the date, location, and circumstances of Peter and Paul’s deaths. To navigate this complexity, it’s helpful to start with the broader traditions regarding the timing and location of their martyrdoms.
Tradition commonly associates Peter and Paul’s executions with the reign of Nero and the year 64 CE. This date aligns with Nero’s infamous persecution of Christians following the Great Fire of Rome. Let’s examine how these traditions align with the available texts:
| Traditions placing Peter & Paul’s execution on the same day of the same year |
|---|
| The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
| Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome |
| Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 |
| Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 |
| Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 |
| Traditions placing Peter & Paul’s execution on the same day of DIFFERENT years |
| — |
| Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul |
| A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
| Traditions placing Peter & Paul’s execution at the SAME place |
| — |
| A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
| Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
Notably, a significant portion of the dual accounts suggests that Peter and Paul were executed on the same day of the same year, yet buried in different locations. However, a substantial number of references remain ambiguous about the specific relationship between their deaths.
Furthermore, the date of 64 CE is not universally accepted within these traditions. The Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul, for example, explicitly states that both were executed on June 29, 57 CE. This highlights the lack of consensus even within the early Christian writings regarding the precise year of Peter’s crucifixion.
Robert Hubert (1733–1808). The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD. 1785. Oil on canvas. Musee des Beaux-Arts Andre Malraux, Le Havre, France. (Image credit: Mattes via Wikimedia) Alt text: Painting depicting the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, with flames engulfing buildings and people fleeing.
Nero’s Persecution and the Great Fire: Examining the Context of 64 CE
The traditional association of Peter’s crucifixion (and Paul’s execution) with 64 CE is deeply intertwined with the narrative of Nero’s persecution following the Great Fire of Rome. Nero, who reigned from 54 to 68 CE, is often depicted as a tyrannical emperor who blamed Christians for the devastating fire to deflect public suspicion from himself.
The Roman historian Tacitus, writing around 50 years after the event, provides an account in his Annals (15.44). He recounts that the fire began in July 64 CE in the Circus Maximus and raged for five days. Popular rumor quickly attributed the fire to Nero himself. To counter this, Tacitus writes that Nero shifted the blame to the Christians, a group already viewed with suspicion by some segments of Roman society. Tacitus describes Nero subjecting Christians to cruel punishments, including being thrown to wild animals and burned alive.
However, historical analysis casts doubt on the scale and nature of this persecution in 64 CE. While it’s plausible that Nero targeted some Christians in Rome, it’s unlikely they were a large or well-defined group at that time to serve as a credible scapegoat for such a major event. Consider the correspondence between Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, and Emperor Trajan in 112 CE, nearly fifty years after the purported Neronian persecution. Pliny, seeking guidance on how to deal with Christians, indicates he knows very little about them, referring to them as a “group that he knows nothing about.” Trajan’s response further suggests he too is unfamiliar with Christians as a distinct and well-known entity. This lack of awareness in Roman administrative circles decades after 64 CE challenges the notion of a widespread, targeted persecution of Christians under Nero.
Therefore, while the tradition linking Peter’s crucifixion to 64 CE and Nero’s persecution persists, it’s crucial to approach this connection with historical nuance. It’s possible that some Christians, including Peter and Paul, were caught up in the aftermath of the Great Fire and faced persecution, but the extent and systematic nature of Nero’s actions against Christians in 64 CE are debated by historians. Furthermore, some early Christian sources attribute the deaths of Peter and Paul not to widespread persecution, but to more localized factors. 1 Clement 5:1-7, one of the earliest references to their deaths (c. 80-130 CE), ascribes their martyrdom to “unjust jealousy.” Similarly, John Chrysostom in the late 4th century CE, attributed Paul’s execution to “those waging war against him” (On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15).
Why Upside Down? The Unique Crucifixion of Peter
Beyond the question of “when was Peter crucified,” another enduring aspect of tradition concerns the manner of his death: upside-down crucifixion. This detail, absent from the New Testament, emerges in later accounts and becomes a defining element of Peter’s martyrdom narrative.
Tradition states that Peter requested to be crucified upside down because he felt unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus. This act of humility and deference to Christ became a powerful symbol in Christian iconography and theology. The earliest account to mention this detail is the Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Peter (Acts of Peter 30-41), dating from the late 2nd to early 3rd centuries CE. This text presents Peter’s upside-down crucifixion within a complex theological framework involving Platonic dualism and mystical interpretations of death as a form of rebirth.
Over time, the reasoning behind Peter’s request evolved in different versions of the tradition. By the 6th century CE, the History of Shemon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles interprets the upside-down crucifixion as Peter symbolically “kissing the place of Jesus’s feet,” emphasizing humility and reverence. Origen and Jerome also reference this tradition, solidifying the “humility” explanation as the dominant interpretation.
It’s important to note that despite its symbolic weight in Christian tradition, the upside-down cross has, in modern times, been sometimes misinterpreted and appropriated outside of its original context. Rumors linking it to the “Peace Symbol” are unfounded. Instead, the inverted Petrine cross is occasionally seen in horror films or associated with anti-Christian symbolism in some subcultures, a stark contrast to its intended meaning of humility and devotion.
Paul’s Martyrdom: Beheading and the Lost Head
While our focus is primarily on “when was Peter crucified,” it’s relevant to briefly touch upon the traditions surrounding Paul’s death, particularly as they are often intertwined with Peter’s. Unlike Peter, tradition holds that Paul was beheaded, not crucified. This distinction is attributed to Paul’s Roman citizenship, which supposedly exempted him from crucifixion, a punishment typically reserved for non-citizens and slaves.
The narrative of Paul’s martyrdom, as depicted in the Apostolic Acts, often shares thematic similarities with biblical accounts, such as the story of Eutychus in Acts 20. In some versions, a servant of Nero, much like Eutychus, falls from a window while listening to Paul preach and is miraculously revived. This event, or similar incidents, are portrayed as leading to Paul’s arrest and eventual execution by beheading. Variations of the story sometimes involve Paul converting Nero’s mistress or even members of the imperial bodyguard, further provoking Nero’s wrath.
A peculiar detail that appears in several Paul’s martyrdom traditions is the motif of his lost head. Accounts describe Paul’s head being separated from his body and temporarily lost, only to be miraculously rediscovered and rejoined later. While the specifics vary, this recurring element adds a unique, almost folkloric, dimension to the traditions surrounding Paul’s death.
Conclusion: Tradition and the Unresolved Question of Peter’s Crucifixion Date
In conclusion, the question “when was Peter crucified” leads us into a complex landscape of historical uncertainty and evolving traditions. The New Testament, our primary source for the life of Peter, remains silent on the date and circumstances of his death. To find answers, we must turn to later Christian writings, which offer a rich but sometimes contradictory tapestry of martyrdom accounts.
While tradition often places Peter’s crucifixion in Rome during Nero’s reign around 64 CE, this date and the association with Nero’s persecution are not definitively confirmed and are subject to historical debate. Some early Christian sources even suggest alternative dates, such as 57 CE. The details surrounding Peter’s upside-down crucifixion and Paul’s beheading, while deeply ingrained in Christian lore, also originate from these extra-biblical traditions.
Ultimately, pinpointing the precise date of Peter’s crucifixion with certainty remains elusive. The enduring nature of these martyrdom traditions, however, highlights the power of storytelling and the human desire to fill in the gaps in historical records. The absence of death narratives for Peter and Paul in the Bible, coupled with the proliferation of post-biblical legends, underscores a crucial distinction: what believers often expect to find in scripture is not always what is actually described. The story of Peter’s crucifixion, and the question of when it occurred, serves as a compelling example of how traditions develop, evolve, and shape our understanding of pivotal figures in religious history, even when definitive historical answers remain just beyond our grasp.
