St. Peter, originally known as Simon, holds a paramount position in Christian history as one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ and is traditionally regarded as the first Pope. His life, marked by profound faith, human fallibility, and unwavering dedication, is chronicled in the New Testament and subsequent Christian writings. Born in Bethsaida, Galilee, Simon, son of Jonah, was a fisherman by trade. It was his encounter with Jesus that transformed him from a simple fisherman into a foundational figure of the Christian Church. This transformation and his subsequent journey form a compelling narrative of faith, leadership, and martyrdom.
From Bethsaida to Disciple: The Early Life of St. Peter
Simon’s origins lay in Bethsaida, a fishing town on the shores of Lake Genesareth (also known as the Sea of Galilee). His brother, Andrew, was also an apostle, and Philip, another apostle, hailed from the same town. While Bethsaida was his birthplace, St. Peter later settled in Capharnaum, another town on the lake, where he lived with his mother-in-law in his own house. The Gospels indicate that St. Peter was married, and early Christian writer Clement of Alexandria suggests he had children. Clement also recounts a tradition of St. Peter’s wife enduring martyrdom, although other early Christian texts remain silent on this. In Capharnaum, St. Peter continued his occupation as a fisherman, owning his own boat and engaging in the prosperous fishing industry of Lake Genesareth.
Like many of his Jewish contemporaries, Simon was drawn to the teachings of John the Baptist, a prominent figure preaching repentance and spiritual renewal near the Jordan River. Along with his brother Andrew, Simon became associated with John the Baptist in Bethania, located on the eastern bank of the Jordan. A pivotal moment occurred when John the Baptist, upon seeing Jesus passing by, declared, “Behold the Lamb of God.” Following this declaration, Andrew and another disciple followed Jesus to his dwelling and spent a day with him.
Andrew, recognizing the significance of this encounter, sought out his brother Simon and proclaimed, “We have found the Messiah.” Andrew then brought Simon to Jesus. Upon meeting Simon, Jesus looked at him and said, “Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called Cephas, which is interpreted Peter.” This initial encounter was significant as Jesus foretold the change of Simon’s name to Cephas, an Aramaic name meaning “rock,” translated as Peter in Greek. This name change, even at their first meeting, hints at the special role Jesus envisioned for St. Peter in the future of his ministry. The formal renaming to Cephas (Peter) likely occurred later when Jesus definitively called St. Peter to the apostleship, alongside the other eleven apostles. From then on, Simon was largely known as Peter, particularly by Christ, especially after Peter’s declaration of faith. The Gospel writers often use both names, while St. Paul frequently uses Cephas.
Following their initial meeting, St. Peter, along with other early disciples, remained with Jesus for a period, accompanying him to various locations including Galilee (the wedding at Cana), Judea, Jerusalem, and through Samaria back to Galilee. During this time, as recounted in the Gospels of John, St. Peter witnessed early miracles and teachings of Jesus. Subsequently, St. Peter returned to his fishing trade for a brief period. However, this interlude was short-lived as Jesus issued a definitive call for St. Peter to become a permanent disciple. While St. Peter and Andrew were fishing, Jesus approached them and said, “Come ye after me, and I will make you to be fishers of men.” On the same occasion, Jesus also called James and John, the sons of Zebedee. From this moment, St. Peter remained a constant companion of Jesus, embarking on a journey that would define his life and shape the course of Christianity. After delivering the Sermon on the Mount and healing the centurion’s servant in Capharnaum, Jesus came to Peter’s house and healed his mother-in-law, who was suffering from a fever. Shortly after, Christ selected his Twelve Apostles to be his constant companions in spreading the message of the Kingdom of God.
The Rise to Prominence: St. Peter Among the Twelve Apostles
Within the Twelve Apostles, St. Peter quickly distinguished himself. Despite his sometimes impulsive nature, St. Peter demonstrated unwavering loyalty, profound faith, and deep love for Jesus. His actions and words, often characterized by both boldness and moments of doubt, reveal a passionate and enthusiastic disciple, susceptible to external pressures yet ultimately resilient in his commitment. As the narrative of the Gospels unfolds, highlighting the apostles’ growing role, St. Peter emerges as a leading figure, consistently positioned as “first among equals.” In the lists of the Twelve Apostles, particularly during their formal appointment, St. Peter is not only always listed first, but the Gospels emphasize the surname “Petrus” given to him by Christ. Matthew 10:2 explicitly states, “Now the names of the twelve apostles are these; The first, Simon, who is called Peter…”. Similar emphasis is found in Mark 3:14-16 and Luke 6:13-14, reinforcing St. Peter’s preeminent position from the outset. On numerous occasions, St. Peter acts as a spokesperson for the apostles. When questions or clarifications are needed, it is often St. Peter who speaks on behalf of the group. For instance, in Matthew 15:15, 19:27, and Luke 12:41, St. Peter poses questions or makes statements representing the concerns or understanding of the apostles. Even when Jesus addresses all the apostles collectively, St. Peter often responds in their name, demonstrating his recognized role as their voice. Furthermore, the Gospels frequently depict Jesus turning specifically to St. Peter in moments of instruction, correction, or special commission, highlighting a unique relationship and direct communication between them.
St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles, depicted in a classic artistic representation.
A defining moment illustrating St. Peter’s fidelity occurred when many disciples were unsettled by Jesus’ teachings about the Eucharist in John 6:22 ff. As many disciples turned away, Jesus asked the Twelve if they would also leave. It was St. Peter who responded decisively: “Lord, to whom shall we go? thou hast the words of eternal life. And we have believed and have known that thou art the Holy One of God.” This declaration of unwavering faith, spoken on behalf of the apostles, underscores St. Peter’s deep conviction in Jesus’ divinity and teachings. Christ himself undeniably acknowledged St. Peter’s unique precedence and leadership among the apostles, designating him for a special role on several occasions. St. Peter was part of an inner circle of three apostles, along with James and John, who were privileged to witness pivotal events in Jesus’ ministry. These included the raising of Jairus’ daughter from the dead, the Transfiguration of Christ, and the Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane. These exclusive experiences further set St. Peter apart and highlighted his special relationship with Jesus. Beyond these select events, Christ favored St. Peter in other ways. He chose St. Peter’s boat on Lake Genesareth as his pulpit to preach to the crowds gathered on the shore. When miraculously walking on water, Jesus called out specifically to St. Peter, inviting him to walk on the water as well. In another instance, Jesus instructed St. Peter to catch a fish in whose mouth he would find a stater, a coin sufficient to pay the temple tribute for both of them. These specific instances underscore the unique position and favor St. Peter held among the apostles, foreshadowing his future role in the Church.
The Rock and the Keys: St. Peter’s Primacy Affirmed
The most significant affirmation of St. Peter’s leadership role came when Christ formally designated him as the head of the apostles and the foundation of his Church. This pivotal event occurred near Caesarea Philippi, a region where Jesus and his apostles were engaged in their mission. Amidst the diverse public opinions about Jesus’ identity, Jesus posed a crucial question to his apostles: “Whom do men say that the Son of man is?” The apostles relayed the various popular opinions – some believed him to be John the Baptist, others Elijah, Jeremiah, or another of the prophets. Then, Jesus turned the question directly to them: “But whom do you say that I am?” It was Simon Peter who, divinely inspired, proclaimed, “Thou art Christ, the Son of the living God.” Jesus responded with a profound declaration, saying, “Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona: because flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven. And I say to thee: That thou art Peter [Kipha, a rock], and upon this rock [Kipha] I will build my church [ekklesian], and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven.” Following this declaration, Jesus instructed them to keep his messianic identity confidential for the time being.
The significance of Jesus’ words rests heavily on the play of words in Aramaic, where “Kipha” means both “Peter” and “rock.” The interpretation that Jesus meant to build his Church on himself as the “rock” is linguistically and contextually less sound than the clear meaning: Jesus is establishing Peter as the foundation of the Church. This passage unequivocally designates St. Peter as the leader of the community of believers in Christ as the true Messiah. Through this foundation (St. Peter), Christ’s kingdom, the Church, would be invincible. Spiritual guidance and authority within this community were entrusted to St. Peter, as Christ’s chosen representative. The terms “bind” and “loose,” rooted in Jewish juridical language, further emphasize the authority granted to St. Peter in matters of doctrine and discipline within the Church. St. Peter’s position amongst the apostles and within the nascent Christian community formed the bedrock for the Kingdom of God on earth – the Church of Christ. Christ personally installed St. Peter as the head of the apostles, establishing a foundational structure for the Church that was intended to endure beyond St. Peter’s lifetime. This foundation, historically evidenced, continues in the primacy of the Roman Church and its bishops, who are considered successors to St. Peter.
The Protestant assertion that the primacy of the Roman bishops cannot be derived from St. Peter’s precedence among the apostles is historically and theologically unsustainable. Just as the apostolic ministry of the Twelve in establishing and expanding the Church did not cease with their deaths, neither did St. Peter’s apostolic primacy. Christ intended for this primacy to continue and develop within the ecclesiastical structure, adapting as needed, just as the office of the apostles evolved over time. Objections to the authenticity of Matthew 16:18-20 are weak in light of unanimous manuscript evidence, parallel Gospel passages, and the consistent belief in the early Church. These factors strongly affirm the genuineness and integrity of this text, underscoring the foundational role of St. Peter as established by Christ himself.
Trials of Faith: St. Peter and the Passion of Christ
Despite his profound faith and the unique position granted to him, St. Peter’s understanding of Jesus’ mission was not fully formed, particularly regarding the necessity of Christ’s suffering. The concept of a suffering Messiah clashed with his worldly expectations of power and glory, leading to moments of misunderstanding and even rebuke from Jesus. When Jesus began to foretell his impending suffering and death, St. Peter, unable to reconcile this with his image of the Messiah, protested, “God forbid, Lord! This shall never happen to you.” Jesus responded sternly, “Get behind me, Satan! You are a hindrance to me. For you are not setting your mind on God’s things, but on man’s.” This sharp rebuke highlights the gap in St. Peter’s understanding at this point and the struggle to accept the necessity of Christ’s passion. St. Peter’s volatile nature, coexisting with his fervent loyalty, became particularly evident during the events leading up to Christ’s Passion. Jesus warned him that Satan desired to sift him like wheat, testing his faith. However, Christ assured St. Peter that he had prayed for him, “that thy faith fail not: and when thou art converted, strengthen thy brethren.” Despite St. Peter’s confident assertion that he was ready to follow Jesus even to prison and death, Christ predicted his denial, saying, “Verily I say unto thee, That this day, even in this night, before the cock crow twice, thou shalt deny me thrice.”
At the Last Supper, during the washing of the disciples’ feet, St. Peter initially resisted, protesting, “Lord, dost thou wash my feet?” When Jesus insisted that it was necessary, St. Peter dramatically shifted, pleading, “Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my head.” This episode again reveals St. Peter’s passionate and sometimes impetuous nature. In the Garden of Gethsemane, as Jesus faced his agonizing ordeal, St. Peter, along with James and John, was asked to watch and pray. However, he succumbed to sleep, earning a gentle rebuke from Jesus: “Simon, sleepest thou? couldest not thou watch one hour?” At the moment of Jesus’ arrest, St. Peter, in a burst of impulsive action, drew his sword and struck Malchus, the high priest’s servant, cutting off his ear. Jesus immediately rebuked this violent act, instructing St. Peter to put away his sword and healing Malchus’ ear. In the ensuing chaos, St. Peter, along with the other apostles, initially fled. However, St. Peter and John soon followed Jesus to the courtyard of the High Priest. There, in a moment of profound weakness and fear, St. Peter denied knowing Jesus three times, just as Christ had foretold. This denial, while a significant failure, stemmed not from a loss of faith in Christ, but from fear and cowardice in the face of danger. The Gospels emphasize St. Peter’s intense sorrow and remorse immediately after the third denial, when, upon hearing the rooster crow and catching Jesus’ gaze, he realized the gravity of his actions and wept bitterly. This moment of profound regret marked the beginning of St. Peter’s repentance and eventual restoration.
Reinstatement and Mission: St. Peter After the Resurrection
Despite his denial, St. Peter’s role as head of the apostles was reaffirmed by the risen Christ, and his prominence was undiminished after the Resurrection. In fact, the resurrected Jesus specifically sought out St. Peter to reinstate him and recommission him for his leadership role. The women who first discovered the empty tomb were instructed by an angel to deliver a special message to “his disciples and Peter,” singling out St. Peter even in his absence and shame. Significantly, Christ appeared to St. Peter alone on the day of the Resurrection, before appearing to the other apostles as a group. This private encounter, mentioned in Luke 24:34 and 1 Corinthians 15:5, underscores St. Peter’s unique standing and the personal attention Christ gave to his restoration. However, the most crucial reinstatement occurred at the Sea of Galilee. There, Jesus appeared to the disciples while they were fishing. After breakfast, Jesus turned to St. Peter and, in a poignant exchange, asked him three times, “Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me?” Each time St. Peter affirmed his love, Jesus responded with a command: “Feed my lambs,” “Feed my sheep,” “Feed my sheep.” This threefold affirmation of love and threefold commission directly countered St. Peter’s threefold denial, publicly restoring him to his apostolic office and specifically entrusting him with the pastoral care of Christ’s flock – the Church. In conclusion, Christ foretold St. Peter’s martyrdom, saying, “When thou shalt be old, thou shalt stretch forth thy hands, and another shall gird thee, and carry thee whither thou wouldest not.” This prophecy of a martyr’s death and the invitation, “Follow me,” served as a final commissioning, solidifying St. Peter’s path of leadership and ultimate sacrifice. Thus, St. Peter was not only called and trained for apostleship but also specifically clothed with the primacy of the apostleship, which he exercised unequivocally after Christ’s Ascension into Heaven.
Leadership in Jerusalem and Palestine: St. Peter in the Early Church
Information about St. Peter’s activities in Jerusalem, Judea, and Syria following Christ’s Ascension primarily comes from the early chapters of the Acts of the Apostles, corroborated by incidental mentions in St. Paul’s epistles. After Christ’s Ascension from Mount Olivet, amidst the community of apostles and disciples awaiting the promised Holy Spirit, St. Peter immediately emerged as the leader. He took the initiative in addressing the need to replace Judas in the Apostolic College, guiding the selection process to ensure the continuity of apostolic witness. Following the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, St. Peter, standing as the head of the apostles, delivered the first public sermon proclaiming the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. This powerful address resulted in a significant number of Jewish conversions, marking the birth of the Christian community in Jerusalem. St. Peter, recognized as the leading apostle, performed the first public miracle after Pentecost, healing a lame man at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple alongside John. Addressing the crowds who gathered in astonishment, St. Peter delivered another powerful sermon in Solomon’s Porch, further expanding the community of believers.
During their subsequent interrogation before the Jewish High Council, St. Peter boldly defended Jesus and the apostles’ right and duty to preach the Gospel. When Ananias and Sapphira attempted to deceive the apostles, St. Peter, acting as judge, discerned their deception, and divine judgment followed, resulting in their deaths. The Acts of the Apostles also recounts numerous miracles performed through the apostles, with special mention of St. Peter. It is recorded that people brought the sick into the streets, hoping that even St. Peter’s shadow might fall upon them and heal them. The growing number of believers prompted further opposition from the Jewish authorities. However, St. Peter, along with the apostles, resolutely declared, “We ought to obey God rather than men,” defying the council’s commands to cease preaching in Jesus’ name. St. Peter’s ministry extended beyond Jerusalem. He maintained connections with Christian communities throughout Palestine and preached the Gospel in regions further north. When Philip the Deacon successfully evangelized Samaria, St. Peter and John were sent from Jerusalem to organize the community and confer the Holy Spirit upon the new believers. In Samaria, St. Peter confronted Simon Magus, a sorcerer who sought to buy the power to bestow the Holy Spirit, again acting decisively to protect the integrity of the apostolic ministry. Returning to Jerusalem, St. Peter and John continued to spread the Gospel message. Following St. Paul’s conversion and departure from Jerusalem, the Christian communities in Palestine experienced a period of relative peace from Jewish persecution.
St. Peter then embarked on an extensive missionary journey, reaching the coastal cities of Lydda, Joppe, and Caesarea. In Lydda, he healed the paralyzed Aeneas. In Joppe, he raised Tabitha (Dorcas) from the dead. In Caesarea, guided by a divine vision, St. Peter baptized Cornelius, a Roman centurion, and his household, marking the inclusion of the first Gentiles into the Church. Upon returning to Jerusalem, St. Peter faced criticism from Jewish Christians who questioned his association with the uncircumcised Gentiles. St. Peter recounted his vision and defended his actions, which were ultimately ratified by the apostles and believers in Jerusalem, signifying a crucial step in the Church’s expansion beyond its Jewish origins. St. Paul’s account in Galatians 1:18-20 corroborates St. Luke’s depiction of St. Peter’s prominent role. St. Paul states that after his conversion and time in Arabia, he went to Jerusalem specifically “to see Peter,” acknowledging St. Peter’s leadership within the apostolic body and the early Church. However, St. Peter’s extended ministry in Jerusalem and Palestine was drawing to a close. King Herod Agrippa I initiated a new wave of persecution against the Church in Jerusalem. After executing James, son of Zebedee, Herod imprisoned St. Peter, intending to execute him after Passover. Miraculously freed from prison by an angel, St. Peter went to the house of Mary, mother of John Mark, where many believers were gathered in prayer. After informing them of his liberation and instructing them to inform James and the other brethren, St. Peter departed Jerusalem for “another place,” marking the end of his primary ministry in the city and the beginning of his wider apostolic journeys.
Eastern Missions and the Council of Jerusalem: Expanding the Church
The Acts of the Apostles provides no specific details about St. Peter’s whereabouts after his escape from prison in Jerusalem. However, various historical sources indicate that he undertook extensive missionary journeys in the East. It is well-established that St. Peter spent time in Antioch, a significant early Christian center, and may have resided there multiple times. The Christian community in Antioch had been founded by Jewish Christians who fled Jerusalem due to persecution. St. Peter’s presence in Antioch is confirmed by St. Paul’s account in Galatians 2:11-21, which describes an incident concerning the observance of Jewish dietary laws by Gentile converts. The “pillars” of the Jerusalem Church – St. Peter, James, and John – had already agreed upon a division of labor: St. Paul would focus on evangelizing Gentiles, while they primarily ministered to Jews. While St. Paul was in Antioch, St. Peter arrived and initially associated freely with Gentile Christians, sharing meals with them. However, the arrival of Jewish Christians from Jerusalem caused St. Peter to withdraw from this practice, fearing it would scandalize the stricter Jewish Christians and jeopardize his influence among them. This shift in St. Peter’s behavior influenced other Jewish Christians in Antioch, including Barnabas, leading them to also separate from Gentile Christians in social meals.
St. Paul publicly challenged St. Peter’s conduct, arguing that it contradicted the principle of Gentile converts’ freedom from Jewish Law and could mislead them into believing circumcision and adherence to Jewish Law were necessary for salvation. This incident underscores St. Peter’s considerable authority in the early Church; his actions and example carried significant weight. While St. Paul challenged this particular decision, his respectful tone and the fact that he addressed St. Peter directly further highlight St. Peter’s leadership position. The outcome of this disagreement is not explicitly stated by St. Paul. However, it is highly probable that St. Peter recognized the validity of St. Paul’s argument and reverted to his initial practice of associating freely with Gentile Christians. St. Paul’s subsequent writings consistently address and refute the extreme “Judaizers” who came “from James” in Jerusalem, suggesting that St. Peter ultimately aligned with St. Paul’s view on Gentile inclusion. Later tradition, dating back to the late second century, identifies St. Peter as the founder of the Church of Antioch, suggesting a significant period of ministry there. Some traditions even propose that St. Peter resided in Antioch towards the end of his life and appointed Evodius as the first Bishop of Antioch, further solidifying the connection between St. Peter and this important early Christian center.
It is also likely that St. Peter undertook apostolic missions in various parts of Asia Minor. His First Epistle is addressed to Christians in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, suggesting personal ministry in these regions, particularly among the Jewish Diaspora communities. While the epistle’s general nature doesn’t provide specific details of these missions, it implies a pastoral connection to these areas. The tradition recounted by Bishop Dionysius of Corinth in the late second century, stating that St. Peter (like St. Paul) ministered in Corinth and planted the Church there, cannot be entirely dismissed. Although the “party of Cephas” mentioned by St. Paul in 1 Corinthians might not directly confirm St. Peter’s Corinthian ministry, it doesn’t preclude the possibility, even in conjunction with St. Paul’s own work in Corinth. St. Paul’s general reference in 1 Corinthians 9:5 to “the other apostles, and the brethren of the Lord, and Cephas” traveling in their apostolic ministry further supports the idea of St. Peter’s extensive missionary journeys during this period. St. Peter periodically returned to Jerusalem, where St. James, the brother of the Lord, had become the leader of the original Christian community after St. Peter’s departure. The last mention of St. Peter in the Acts of the Apostles is in the context of the Council of Jerusalem (around 50-51 AD). This council was convened to address the controversy arising from Judaizers in Antioch concerning the necessity of circumcision for Gentile converts. St. Peter played a crucial role in the council’s deliberations. After considerable debate, St. Peter rose and delivered a decisive speech. He recounted his earlier experience with Cornelius, where God had clearly demonstrated his acceptance of Gentiles without requiring them to follow Jewish Law. He argued against imposing the “yoke” of Jewish Law on Gentile converts, emphasizing that salvation comes through grace in Jesus Christ for both Jews and Gentiles. Following St. Peter’s speech, and after St. Paul and Barnabas shared accounts of their successful Gentile missions, James, the leader of the Jerusalem Church, affirmed St. Peter’s position, and the council issued a decree exempting Gentile converts from most requirements of Jewish Law, solidifying the inclusion of Gentiles into the Church without mandatory circumcision.
The events in Caesarea, Antioch, and the Council of Jerusalem demonstrate St. Peter’s evolving understanding and approach to Gentile converts. Initially focused on ministering to Jews, in line with Christ’s commission to preach first to the “lost sheep of Israel,” St. Peter’s vision in Joppe and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on Cornelius and his household convinced him to admit Gentiles into the Church without imposing Jewish Law. His initial hesitation in Antioch, influenced by Jewish Christian sensitivities, was eventually overcome, as evidenced by his decisive stance at the Council of Jerusalem. St. Peter, alongside the other apostles, recognized the equality of Gentile and Jewish believers in Christ, forming one unified Church. While St. Peter primarily directed his apostolic efforts towards Jews, this was largely due to practical considerations and the historical priority of Israel in God’s plan of salvation. The notion of a fundamental conflict between “Petrinism” and “Paulinism” in the early Church, once proposed by some scholars, is historically inaccurate and has been largely discredited. St. Peter and St. Paul, despite their different focuses and occasional disagreements on practical matters, shared a common theological understanding of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ, for both Jews and Gentiles.
Rome: St. Peter’s Final Mission and Martyrdom
The historical reality of St. Peter’s ministry and martyrdom in Rome is unequivocally established by a continuous chain of testimonies from the late first to the second centuries, originating from various geographical locations within early Christendom. These independent and convergent testimonies leave no reasonable doubt about St. Peter’s presence and death in Rome.
Despite this overwhelming historical evidence, some Protestant historians have attempted to dismiss St. Peter’s Roman ministry and martyrdom as legendary. Early attempts to link the tradition to Ebionite origins and the Simon Magus legend have been thoroughly refuted and abandoned by mainstream scholarship, including Protestant historians. More recent attempts to place St. Peter’s martyrdom in Jerusalem lack credible evidence and contradict the consistent and ancient tradition pointing to Rome. The assertion that apocryphal Acts of Peter support a Jerusalem martyrdom is weak and ignores the far earlier and more reliable testimonies affirming Rome as the site of his death. No credible historical or traditional account throughout Christian antiquity places St. Peter’s martyrdom anywhere other than Rome.
While St. Peter’s presence and death in Rome are firmly established, precise details of his time in the Roman capital remain less certain. Accounts in second-century apocryphal literature, particularly those concerning supposed conflicts between St. Peter and Simon Magus, are considered legendary and not historically reliable. However, inferences drawn from early sources, such as the association of St. Peter with the Gospel of Mark (with Mark being traditionally linked to Rome), suggest a significant period of ministry in Rome. Furthermore, the unanimous tradition dating back to the second century identifies St. Peter as the founder of the Roman Church, further reinforcing his long-term presence in the city. Some theories propose that St. Peter first visited Rome after his miraculous liberation from prison in Jerusalem, suggesting that “another place” mentioned in Acts 12:17 was a veiled reference to Rome. However, this early visit remains speculative and lacks definitive proof. Chronological details provided by Eusebius and Jerome, often cited in support of an early Roman arrival, are now understood to be later calculations based on episcopal lists rather than independent historical traditions. The third-century notion of a 25-year pontificate for St. Peter, incorporated into Roman episcopal lists, is also considered a later development and not a primary historical source for dating St. Peter’s arrival in Rome. Therefore, while an early visit to Rome remains a possibility, it cannot be definitively confirmed.
Determining the precise year of St. Peter’s death is also challenging. Fourth-century chronicles offer varying dates. Eusebius’ Chronicle places the death of both St. Peter and St. Paul in Nero’s 13th or 14th year (67-68 AD), a date generally accepted and supported by Jerome. This dating aligns with the tradition that St. Peter arrived in Rome during the reign of Emperor Claudius (around 42 AD, according to Jerome) and the 25-year pontificate tradition. However, the “Chronograph of 354” suggests an earlier date, placing St. Peter’s arrival in Rome in 30 AD and his death in 55 AD. This earlier dating is considered less historically reliable, likely derived from calculations based on a presumed 25-year pontificate starting shortly after Christ’s death, which is chronologically problematic. Other proposed dates, such as 65 or 66 AD, also exist. Harnack argued for 64 AD, coinciding with the beginning of Nero’s persecution. Duchesne also favored 64 AD. Erbes proposed 63 AD for St. Peter’s death and 64 AD for St. Paul’s. Ultimately, the exact year of St. Peter’s death remains uncertain, generally placed within the period between the outbreak of Nero’s persecution in July 64 AD and Nero’s flight from Rome in June 68 AD. The traditional date of June 29th, celebrated as his feast day, cannot be definitively proven as the actual day of his death.
Regarding the manner of St. Peter’s death, tradition, attested to by Tertullian in the late second century and Origen in the early third century, indicates crucifixion. Origen specifies that St. Peter was crucified upside down at his own request. The likely location of his execution is the Neronian Gardens on Vatican Hill, where Nero staged public spectacles and persecutions of Christians, as described by Tacitus. It is in this area, near the Via Cornelia and at the foot of Vatican Hill, that St. Peter’s tomb is venerated. Caius, in the third century, already mentions St. Peter’s “trophy” (tomb) on Vatican Hill. For a period, St. Peter’s remains were likely moved to the catacombs on the Appian Way (“ad Catacumbas”) along with St. Paul’s remains, possibly around 258 AD during the Valerian persecution to protect them from desecration. They were later returned to their original burial sites. Emperor Constantine the Great built a grand basilica over St. Peter’s tomb on Vatican Hill in the fourth century. This basilica was replaced by the current St. Peter’s Basilica in the 16th century. The altar within St. Peter’s Basilica, built over the original tomb (“confessio”), has been a central point of veneration since the fourth century. A cavity beneath the altar, directly above St. Peter’s sarcophagus, allowed pilgrims to kneel virtually over the Apostle’s relics, and keys to this access point were given as treasured souvenirs.
St. Peter’s memory is also associated with the Catacomb of St. Priscilla on the Via Salaria. Later traditions suggest St. Peter taught and baptized converts there. This tradition may be rooted in the catacomb’s early origins and association with the Acilii Glabriones family, a Roman senatorial family with early Christian connections dating back to the late first century. Acilius Glabrio, consul in 91 AD, was executed as a Christian under Domitian, suggesting the family’s Christian faith may have originated in apostolic times, possibly offering hospitality to St. Peter during his Roman ministry. Legends also connect St. Peter with Pudens and his household, whose house is said to be the site of the church of Santa Pudenziana, but these connections are less historically certain. (For information on St. Peter’s Epistles, see separate entries on the Epistles of Saint Peter. For apocryphal writings associated with St. Peter, see entries on Apocrypha. The apocryphal “Kerygma Petri,” a collection of supposed sermons by St. Peter dating from the second century, is also discussed in separate scholarly works.)
Feasts of St. Peter: Commemorating the Apostle
By the fourth century, a feast day commemorating both St. Peter and St. Paul was celebrated, although the date varied between the Eastern and Western Churches. The Syriac Martyrology from the late fourth century lists feasts for St. Stephen, Sts. James and John, and Sts. Peter and Paul immediately following Christmas, suggesting a December 28th (or 27th) observance in some Eastern traditions. Armenians also celebrated the feast on December 27th, and Nestorians on the second Friday after Epiphany. These December dates are considered arbitrary, likely chosen without specific historical basis for the apostles’ death dates. The primary feast of Sts. Peter and Paul in Rome, observed on June 29th, dates back to at least the third or fourth century. The Chronograph of Philocalus, a fourth-century Roman calendar, mentions under June 29th, “Petri in Catacumbas et Pauli Ostiense Tusco et Basso Cose.” (referring to the year 258 AD). The “Martyrologium Hieronymianum” also notes for June 29th: “Romae via Aurelia natale sanctorum Apostolorum Petri et Pauli, Petri in Vaticano, Pauli in via Ostiensi, utrumque in catacumbas, passi sub Nerone, Basso et Tusco consulibus.”
The 258 AD date in these notices indicates that the June 29th feast originated in that year, commemorating the temporary translation of the apostles’ relics to the catacombs on the Appian Way “ad Catacumbas” (near San Sebastiano fuori le mura) to safeguard them during persecutions. Subsequently, the relics were returned to their original burial sites at the Vatican and on the Via Ostiensis when churches were built over their tombs. The church at “Ad Catacumbas” was also built in honor of the apostles in the fourth century. From 258 AD onwards, June 29th became the principal feast day, with solemn services held in these three Roman churches: St. Peter’s at the Vatican, St. Paul’s on the Via Ostiensis, and San Sebastiano “ad Catacumbas.” Legends arose to explain the temporary burial “ad Catacumbas,” suggesting that Eastern Christians intended to steal the bodies shortly after their deaths, necessitating a temporary relocation, but this is considered a popular legend without historical basis. (For the Feast of the Chair of Peter, see separate entries on Chair of Peter).
A third Roman feast associated with St. Peter, “St. Peter’s Chains,” is celebrated on August 1st. This feast was originally the dedication feast of the church built on the Esquiline Hill in the fourth century, later rebuilt by Pope Sixtus III (432-440 AD). The dedication, or perhaps the dedication of an earlier church on the site, likely occurred on August 1st, possibly chosen to replace pre-existing pagan festivities on that date. This church (S. Pietro in Vincoli, still standing) housed St. Peter’s chains, venerated as relics. The church’s name “in Vinculis” (in Chains) and the August 1st feast day became associated with St. Peter’s chains. Memories of both St. Peter and St. Paul are also linked to two other Roman sites: the Via Sacra, where Simon Magus was said to have fallen after St. Peter’s prayer, and the Mamertine Prison (“Carcer Mamertinus”), where the apostles were traditionally believed to have been imprisoned before their execution. While shrines exist at these locations, commemorating these legends, no specific liturgical feasts are associated with them. However, the possibility that St. Peter and St. Paul were indeed imprisoned in the Mamertine Prison, the main state prison of ancient Rome, remains plausible.
Artistic Representations of St. Peter: Iconography and Symbolism
The oldest known artistic depiction of St. Peter is a bronze medallion from the late second or early third century, housed in the Vatican Library’s Christian Museum. It portrays St. Peter with a strong, round face, prominent jawline, receding forehead, and thick, curly hair and beard. The features are distinct enough to suggest a portrait-like quality. This iconographic type is also found in third-century frescoes in the Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus. In catacomb paintings, Sts. Peter and Paul frequently appear as intercessors for the deceased in Last Judgment scenes and as guides leading the deceased into Paradise. In numerous depictions of Christ with his apostles in catacombs and sarcophagi, St. Peter and St. Paul are consistently placed on Christ’s right and left, positions of honor. Roman basilica mosaics from the fourth to ninth centuries similarly depict Christ centrally, flanked by Sts. Peter and Paul, and other locally venerated saints. Sarcophagi and other early Christian monuments feature scenes from St. Peter’s life, including walking on water, the prophecy of his denial, the washing of feet, the raising of Tabitha, and his arrest and journey to martyrdom. Two gilt glasses depict St. Peter as Moses striking the rock for water, with the inscription “Peter,” signifying St. Peter as the leader of God’s people in the New Testament, paralleling Moses in the Old Testament.
Between the fourth and sixth centuries, the motif of “Christ delivering the Law to Peter” became prevalent. Christ is shown handing St. Peter a scroll, often inscribed with “Lex Domini” (Law of the Lord) or “Dominus legem dat” (The Lord gives the law). This scene, symbolizing St. Peter’s authority and role as interpreter of Christ’s teachings, is paired with the giving of the Law to Moses in some depictions, like in the Mausoleum of Constantina in Rome. By the fifth century, sarcophagi often depict Christ giving St. Peter keys instead of a scroll, directly referencing the “keys of the kingdom” passage in Matthew 16:19 and solidifying the symbolic representation of St. Peter’s authority. In fourth-century art, St. Peter often holds a staff, evolving into a long cross-staff by the fifth century, symbolizing his apostolic office. From the late sixth century onward, keys (usually two, sometimes three) became St. Peter’s primary attribute, replacing the staff and remaining his most recognizable symbol. The famous bronze statue of St. Peter in St. Peter’s Basilica, dating from late antiquity, prominently features these keys, becoming the quintessential representation of St. Peter.
Sources
BIRKS Studies of the Life and character of St. Peter (LONDON, 1887), TAYLOR, Peter the Apostle, new ed. by BURNET AND ISBISTER (London, 1900); BARNES, St. Peter in Rome and his Tomb on the Vatican Hill (London, 1900): LIGHTFOOT, Apostolic Fathers, 2nd ed., pt. 1, VII. (London, 1890), 481sq., St. Peter in Rome; FOUARD Les origines de l’Église: St. Pierre et Les premières années du christianisme (3rd ed., Paris 1893); FILLION, Saint Pierre (2nd ed Paris, 1906); collection Les Saints; RAMBAUD, Histoire de St. Pierre apôtre (Bordeaux, 1900); GUIRAUD, La venue de St Pierre à Rome in Questions d’hist. et d’archéol. chrét. (Paris, 1906); FOGGINI, De romano D. Petr; itinere et episcopatu (Florence, 1741); RINIERI, S. Pietro in Roma ed i primi papi secundo i piu vetusti cataloghi della chiesa Romana (Turin, 1909); PAGANI, Il cristianesimo in Roma prima dei gloriosi apostoli Pietro a Paolo, e sulle diverse venute de’ principi degli apostoli in Roma (Rome, 1906); POLIDORI, Apostolato di S. Pietro in Roma in Civiltà Cattolica, series 18, IX (Rome, 1903), 141 sq.; MARUCCHI, Le memorie degli apostoli Pietro e Paolo in Roma (2nd ed., Rome, 1903); LECLER, De Romano S. Petri episcopatu (Louvain, 1888); SCHMID, Petrus in Rome oder Aufenthalt, Episkopat und Tod in Rom (Breslau, 1889); KNELLER, St. Petrus, Bischof von Rom in Zeitschrift f. kath. Theol., XXVI (1902), 33 sq., 225sq.; MARQUARDT, Simon Petrus als Mittel und Ausgangspunkt der christlichen Urkirche (Kempten, 1906); GRISAR, Le tombe apostoliche al Vaticano ed alla via Ostiense in Analecta Romana, I (Rome, 1899), sq.
About this page
APA citation. Kirsch, J.P. (1911). St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm
MLA citation. Kirsch, Johann Peter. “St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. .
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Gerard Haffner.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. February 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
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