While the Bible vividly recounts the life and teachings of St. Peter, one of Jesus’ most prominent apostles, it remains surprisingly silent on the details of his death. For those seeking to understand the final chapter of this foundational figure in Christianity, the New Testament offers no direct answers. This absence often leads to questions and a reliance on traditions that have evolved over centuries. So, how did St. Peter die? The answer lies not within the canonical scriptures, but in a rich tapestry of early Christian writings and legends that paint a compelling, if not definitively historical, picture of his martyrdom.
The New Testament Silence on Peter’s Death
It’s natural to assume that such a significant figure as St. Peter would have his death documented within the New Testament. After all, the scriptures detail the deaths of lesser-known individuals like Judas, Herod Agrippa, and Stephen. Yet, the Book of Acts concludes with Paul, not Peter, in Rome and still alive (Acts 28:30–31). In fact, the New Testament is remarkably silent about the deaths of all twelve apostles after Judas. This silence is puzzling, especially given the detailed accounts of Jesus’ crucifixion.
This absence has led to the development of traditions outside of the Bible, filling in the gaps of what many believe “must have happened.” When we consider the deaths of Peter and Paul, certain narratives frequently emerge:
- The Nero Connection: Their executions are often linked to Emperor Nero’s persecution of Christians around 64 CE, a scapegoating tactic after the Great Fire of Rome.
- Peter’s Upside-Down Crucifixion: Tradition holds that Peter was crucified upside down, deeming himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus.
- Paul’s Beheading: Paul, as a Roman citizen, is said to have been beheaded, a more “honorable” form of execution than crucifixion.
But where do these specific details originate? They are not found in the Bible. To uncover the roots of these traditions, we must turn to a different body of literature: early Christian writings that circulated in the centuries following the apostles’ lives.
Sources Beyond the Bible: Apostolic Acts and Early Christian Writings
While the New Testament canon was being formed, numerous other Christian texts were in circulation, including the “Apostolic Acts.” These collections of stories focused on the lives and deeds of individual apostles. Among these, tales of Peter and Paul were particularly popular. Remarkably, we have access to fifteen distinct accounts of Peter and Paul’s deaths dating back to the 6th century CE – four focusing on Peter, five on Paul, and six on both together. Furthermore, over 25 significant references to their deaths exist in other early Christian writings.
Michelangelo. Crucifixion of Saint Peter. Fresco. Between 1546 and 1550. Vatican Museums. (Image credit: Arnaud 25 via Wikimedia)
The sheer volume of these sources might suggest clarity, but early Christian writings, much like rapidly spreading stories, often present multiple “versions” and “variants,” making it challenging to piece together a definitive historical account. To navigate this complex web of traditions, we can start by examining the broader details found in the later, combined traditions and references in other early Christian literature. This approach helps establish a general framework before delving into the specifics of each apostle’s martyrdom.
When and Where Did Peter Die? Disentangling the Details
Let’s begin with the location and timing of Peter’s death. Tradition firmly places his martyrdom in Rome during the reign of Nero, around 64 CE. Let’s examine the support for this tradition in early texts. It’s important to remember that 64 CE predates the generally accepted dating of the Gospels, making the New Testament’s silence on these deaths even more noteworthy.
In which traditions are Peter & Paul executed on the same day of the same year? Examining the sources, we find a significant number aligning with this idea:
| 1. The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
|---|
| 2. Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 3. Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 4. Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 5. Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 6. Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome |
| 7. Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 |
| 8. Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 |
| 9. Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 |
Interestingly, some traditions place their deaths on the same day but in different years:
| 1. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul |
|---|
| 2. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
And only a couple place their executions in the same location:
| 1. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
|---|
| 2. Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
A substantial number – 14 out of the examined sources – don’t specify the relationship between their deaths at all.
Thus, while a majority of the dual accounts suggest simultaneous executions in the same year, they often diverge on the location of burial and the exact year itself. Furthermore, the Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul specifically places their deaths on June 29, 57 CE, challenging the commonly accepted 64 CE date. This highlights the lack of consensus even within the early traditions themselves.
Who Killed Peter and Why? The Nero Persecution and “Unjust Jealousy”
The association of Peter’s death with Nero and the 64 CE persecution is deeply ingrained in tradition. But is this historically accurate? Nero reigned from 54 to 68 CE, and the 64 CE date aligns with the Great Fire of Rome. The Roman historian Tacitus, writing around 50 years later, recounts the fire in his Annals (15.44), noting that Nero, facing blame for the disaster, deflected it onto the Christians. Tacitus describes Nero’s brutal persecution, including throwing Christians to animals and burning them alive.
Robert Hubert (1733–1808). The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD. 1785. Oil on canvas. Musee des Beaux-Arts Andre Malraux, Le Havre, France. (Image credit: Mattes via Wikimedia)
However, historical evidence suggests that Christians may not have been a prominent and distinct group in Rome as early as 64 CE to serve as credible scapegoats. Pliny the Younger, in correspondence with Emperor Trajan around 112 CE, mentions encountering accusations against a group called “Christians” about whom he knows nothing. Trajan’s reply also indicates unfamiliarity with this group. This scenario is unlikely if, less than 50 years prior, Nero had famously blamed Christians for the Great Fire.
While Christians may have been among those persecuted by Nero, attributing the persecution solely to the Great Fire scapegoat narrative, as Tacitus presents it, might be anachronistic. Tacitus, writing later, may be projecting the more well-known Christian presence of his time (circa 115 CE) back onto the events of 64 CE, reflecting his own contemporary understanding and perhaps biases against Christians.
Adding another layer of complexity, the earliest reference to Peter and Paul’s deaths, 1 Clement (c. 80–130 CE), attributes both martyrdoms to “unjust jealousy.” Similarly, John Chrysostom in the late 4th century CE, suggested Paul’s execution was due to “those waging war against him” (On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15). These accounts point to motivations beyond the Great Fire and Nero’s scapegoating, suggesting perhaps personal or political animosity towards the apostles.
In essence, there’s no single, universally accepted reason for Peter’s execution. The historical record is fragmented and open to interpretation. The simple answer to “Who killed St. Peter and why?” remains elusive. However, by examining the martyrdom traditions, we can delve into the unique details that have shaped the popular understanding of his death, particularly the reason behind his upside-down crucifixion.
Why Upside Down? The Unique Tradition of Peter’s Crucifixion
The tradition of Peter being crucified upside down is one of the most distinctive aspects of his martyrdom narrative. Early accounts portray Peter’s death as a form of redemption after his denial of Jesus. One narrative suggests he angered King Agrippa II and another individual by advocating celibacy to their wives. Later versions exaggerate this, claiming Peter’s teachings on celibacy influenced the wives of numerous Roman senators, understandably provoking the Roman patriarchy.
According to tradition, Peter’s followers, aware of a plot against him, urged him to flee Rome. However, as he was leaving, he encountered a vision of Christ. In the famous “Quo Vadis?” episode, Peter asked Jesus, “Where are you going?” Jesus replied that he was going to Rome to be crucified again. Understanding this as a sign of his own destiny, Peter returned to Rome, was arrested, and requested to be crucified upside down.
The rationale behind the upside-down crucifixion varies across traditions. The earliest accounts connect it to complex theological ideas of Platonic dualism and mysticism, interpreting his death as a symbolic “birth.” The specific theological arguments evolve in later versions. By the 6th century CE, in the History of Shemon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles, the reason shifts to humility – Peter requesting to be crucified upside down as a gesture of unworthiness to die in the same manner as Jesus. This “humility” motif is also echoed in references by Origen and Jerome.
It’s worth noting that the upside-down Petrine cross, contrary to some rumors, is not linked to the origins of the “Peace Symbol.” In modern times, it has often been adopted as a symbol of the antichrist in horror films and by some dark metal music groups, a rather ironic and unexpected legacy for a symbol meant to represent humility and martyrdom.
What About St. Paul? A Brief Comparison
While our focus is on Peter, a brief mention of Paul’s martyrdom traditions provides context. Paul’s narrative shares some similarities with Peter’s, often involving conflict with Roman authorities and eventual execution. One recurring motif in Paul’s accounts is reminiscent of the story of Eutychus in Acts 20. In Paul’s martyrdom traditions, a servant of Nero falls asleep while listening to Paul and falls to his death. Paul resurrects the servant, who then proclaims Jesus as “eternal king,” angering Nero and leading to the discovery of Christians within Nero’s own guard.
Like Peter’s story, details vary in later retellings. Paul is sometimes accused of converting Nero’s mistress or even the entire palace. Ultimately, Nero orders the arrest of Christians and Paul’s beheading. Interestingly, some accounts include a post-mortem visit from Paul that convinces Nero to release the remaining Christians!
A peculiar detail unique to some of Paul’s traditions is the story of his lost head. The duration and circumstances of its loss and rediscovery differ, but the head is eventually miraculously reunited with Paul’s body.
Conclusion
Despite the wealth of traditions surrounding St. Peter and St. Paul, the question “How did St. Peter die?” doesn’t have a definitive, biblically-backed answer. While Jesus’ death is recounted in detail in the Gospels, the deaths of Peter and the other apostles are absent from the New Testament. This absence, despite the existence of numerous post-biblical accounts, suggests a deliberate choice in the formation of the canon.
Perhaps the focus was intended to be on the apostles’ lives and ministries, not their deaths. Maybe the stories of their deaths were unknown or considered unreliable by the time the Gospels were written. Whatever the reason, the enduring martyrdom traditions of Peter and Paul highlight a crucial point: there’s often a significant gap between what believers expect to find in the Bible and what is actually there. The enduring popularity of these traditions, even without biblical basis, underscores the power of storytelling and the human desire to fill in the missing pieces of history, especially when it comes to figures of such profound importance in the Christian faith.
References
David Eastman (Translations & Introductions). The Ancient Martyrdom Accounts of Peter and Paul. (SBL Writings from the Greco-Roman World 39. SBL Press: Atlanta, 2015).
