Peter I, also widely known as Peter The Great, reigned as Tsar of Russia and later as its first Emperor, leaving an indelible mark on the nation’s history. Born Pyotr Alekseyevich in Moscow on June 9, 1672 (Old Style: May 30), and passing away in St. Petersburg on February 8, 1725 (Old Style: January 28), his life was one of transformative leadership. He ruled jointly with his half-brother Ivan V from 1682 to 1696, and then solely from 1696 until his death in 1725. In 1721, he was proclaimed Emperor (Imperator), solidifying his status as a pivotal figure in Russian history. Peter the Great is celebrated as one of Russia’s most significant statesmen, organizers, and reformers, fundamentally altering the course of the country’s development.
The Formative Years of a Tsar
Peter was the offspring of Tsar Alexis and his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. He stood in stark contrast to his half-brothers, sons from Alexis’s first marriage to Mariya Ilinichna Miloslavskaya. Peter was a robust and curious child, a trait possibly nurtured by his mother’s upbringing under Artamon Sergeyevich Matveyev, who exposed her to progressive Western influences. This early exposure to different perspectives likely played a crucial role in shaping Peter’s future vision for Russia.
When Tsar Alexis passed away in 1676, Peter was only four years old. His frail elder half-brother, Fyodor III, ascended the throne. However, real power resided with the Miloslavsky family, relatives of Fyodor’s mother, who deliberately marginalized Peter and the Naryshkin circle. Upon Fyodor’s death without an heir in 1682, a power struggle erupted between the Miloslavsky and Naryshkin factions. The Miloslavskys advocated for Fyodor’s brother, the weak-minded Ivan V, while the Naryshkins championed the intelligent and healthy Peter.
Representatives from various societal orders, convened in the Kremlin, declared their support for Peter, who was then proclaimed Tsar. However, the Miloslavsky faction instigated a revolt by the Moscow streltsy, the sovereign’s musketeer bodyguard, resulting in the deaths of several of Peter’s allies, including Matveyev. Consequently, Ivan and Peter were jointly proclaimed Tsars. Due to Ivan’s poor health and Peter’s youth, Sophia, Ivan’s 25-year-old sister, was appointed regent. Sophia, a shrewd and influential figure, assumed governmental control, effectively excluding Peter from public affairs. Peter and his mother retreated to Preobrazhenskoye village near Moscow, often fearing for their safety. These tumultuous early experiences deeply impacted the young Tsar, fostering a lasting distrust of the streltsy.
An Unconventional Education and Growing Ambitions
Sophia’s exclusion of Peter from governance had an unintended consequence: he was spared the traditional, restrictive education of a Russian Tsar. Instead, he grew up in a more open environment. While his initial tutor, Nikita Zotov, a former church clerk, offered limited intellectual stimulation, Peter thrived on physical activity and developed a keen interest in military matters. His favorite pastimes included playing with weapons and engaging in carpentry, blacksmithing, and even printing.
The presence of the nemetskaya sloboda, or “German colony,” near Preobrazhenskoye, where foreigners resided, proved pivotal. Contact with its inhabitants sparked Peter’s curiosity about foreign cultures. The discovery of a derelict English sailboat ignited his passion for seafaring. Mathematics, fortification, and navigation became his preferred sciences. A model fortress was constructed for his amusement, and he formed his first “play” troops, which in 1687 evolved into the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky Guards regiments—the foundation of a modern Russian Army.
In early 1689, his mother arranged Peter’s marriage to Eudoxia Lopukhina, a move intended to signal his maturity and right to rule independently at the age of 17. However, the marriage was short-lived, as Peter soon distanced himself from his wife, eventually sending her to a convent in 1698.
In August 1689, another streltsy revolt erupted. Sophia attempted to exploit this unrest to orchestrate a coup, but this time, events favored Peter. He removed Sophia from power, banishing her to the Novodevichy convent, where she was forced to become a nun following a subsequent streltsy rebellion in 1698. Although Ivan V remained co-tsar nominally, Peter’s relatives, the Naryshkins, largely controlled the administration until Ivan’s death in 1696. Meanwhile, Peter continued his military and naval pursuits, even overseeing the construction of the first seaworthy ships in Russia. These “games” proved to be invaluable preparation for his future endeavors.
Strategic Foreign Policy and the Azov Campaigns
At the dawn of Peter’s reign, Russia was geographically vast but landlocked, lacking access to the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, or Baltic Sea. Securing an outlet to the sea became the cornerstone of Peter’s foreign policy.
His initial strategic moves were the Azov campaigns of 1695 and 1696, aimed at seizing Azov from the Crimean Tatar vassals of the Ottoman Empire. These campaigns served dual purposes: fulfilling Russia’s commitments to the anti-Turkish Holy League of 1684 (comprising Austria, Poland, and Venice) and securing Russia’s southern borders against Tatar raids, thus paving the way to the Black Sea.
The first Azov campaign in 1695 ended in failure. Undeterred, Peter swiftly established a shipyard at Voronezh to build a fleet capable of navigating the Don River. In 1696, Azov was captured. To solidify this victory, Taganrog was founded on the Don estuary’s northern shore, and the construction of a major Russian navy commenced. This marked the beginning of Peter the Great’s ambitious project to transform Russia into a maritime power and expand its influence on the world stage.
