Peter I, often lauded as Peter the Great, reigned as Tsar of Russia from 1682 and subsequently as the first Emperor of Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. Born Pyotr Alekseyevich in Moscow on June 9 (May 30 Old Style), 1672, he inherited a Russia that was in many ways isolated from the major political, intellectual, and technological shifts occurring in Western Europe. Through a series of ambitious reforms and relentless drive, Peter I propelled Russia onto the world stage, transforming it into a formidable empire and significantly altering the course of Russian history. His reign was marked by modernization, expansion, and a forceful assertion of Russia’s place among the great powers of Europe.
Early Life and Path to Tsardom
Peter’s early life was far from the typical upbringing of a Russian Tsar. He was the son of Tsar Alexis and his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. Unlike his half-brothers from his father’s first marriage, Peter grew up to be robust and intellectually curious. This period was also marked by political intrigue and power struggles within the Russian court. Upon the death of Tsar Alexis in 1676, Peter, only four years old, was bypassed in the succession by his elder half-brother Fyodor III. However, Fyodor’s reign was short-lived, and upon his death in 1682 without an heir, the question of succession reignited tensions between the Naryshkin and Miloslavsky families.
Initially, representatives declared their support for Peter to become Tsar. However, the Miloslavsky faction, relatives of Fyodor’s mother, instigated a revolt by the streltsy, the Moscow musketeers. This uprising led to the brutal murder of some of Peter’s allies and resulted in a compromise: Peter and his infirm half-brother Ivan V were proclaimed joint Tsars. Due to both Ivan’s health and Peter’s young age, Sophia, Ivan’s sister, was appointed regent. This effectively sidelined Peter and his mother, forcing them to reside in Preobrazhenskoye village near Moscow, often under the shadow of political instability and potential threats. This tumultuous early period profoundly impacted Peter, fostering a deep distrust of the streltsy and shaping his determination to consolidate power firmly in his own hands.
An Unconventional Education and Western Influences
Sophia’s regency inadvertently provided Peter with an unusual upbringing for a future Tsar. Excluded from formal courtly education, Peter was free to explore his own interests. While his tutor, Nikita Zotov, provided basic instruction, Peter’s true education came from his own inquisitiveness and the unique environment around him. He was drawn to military games, carpentry, shipbuilding, and various crafts, developing practical skills rather than focusing on traditional courtly subjects.
A significant influence on young Peter was the nemetskaya sloboda, or “German colony,” near Preobrazhenskoye. This enclave of foreigners exposed him to Western European culture, technology, and ideas, sparking a lifelong fascination with the West. He befriended foreign merchants, soldiers, and craftsmen, learning about advancements in military science, shipbuilding, and navigation. A pivotal moment was discovering an old English sailboat, which ignited his passion for the sea and maritime power. These experiences laid the foundation for Peter’s later reforms aimed at modernizing Russia along Western lines.
Seizing Power and Early Military Ventures
By 1689, it became clear that Peter was no longer content with being excluded from governance. His mother arranged his marriage to Eudoxia Lopukhina, signaling his coming of age and claim to rule. Later that year, Sophia, attempting to solidify her power, instigated another streltsy revolt. However, this time, Peter was prepared. He decisively acted against Sophia, removing her from power and banishing her to a convent. Although Ivan V remained co-tsar, real power shifted to Peter and his Naryshkin relatives.
With his authority established, Peter turned his attention to foreign policy and military expansion. Russia at this time was geographically vast but lacked crucial access to major seas, hindering trade and geopolitical influence. Peter prioritized gaining access to the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea. His initial military focus was directed southward against the Ottoman Empire and its Crimean Tatar vassals. The Azov campaigns of 1695 and 1696 were launched to capture Azov, a strategic fortress controlling access to the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea.
The first Azov campaign in 1695 was unsuccessful, revealing weaknesses in the Russian army and navy. Undeterred, Peter demonstrated his characteristic determination and focus on learning from setbacks. He rapidly initiated the construction of a Russian navy at Voronezh. Within a year, a fleet was built and deployed to the Don River. The second Azov campaign in 1696 proved successful, with the capture of Azov. To solidify this victory, Peter founded Taganrog as Russia’s first naval base on the Sea of Azov, marking the beginning of Russia’s emergence as a naval power and a significant step in Peter’s ambition to transform Russia into a major European player. This victory provided Russia with a crucial, albeit still limited, outlet to the south and set the stage for Peter’s even more ambitious goals in the north and his comprehensive reforms across Russian society.
