It’s a question that might naturally arise for anyone exploring the Bible: How did such pivotal figures as the Apostles Peter and Paul meet their end? Given the extensive and detailed accounts surrounding Jesus’ death and even the deaths of less prominent individuals in the New Testament, it seems logical to expect similar narratives for these key apostles. We find descriptions of the deaths of Judas, Herod Agrippa, Ananias and Sapphira, and even Eutychus in the scriptures. So why not for Peter and Paul? Shouldn’t the demise of two of Christianity’s cornerstones be documented with the same gravitas, perhaps akin to the martyrdom of Stephen in Acts 7?
However, the surprising truth is that the New Testament offers no explicit account of the deaths of either Peter or Paul. This absence highlights how traditions can evolve and solidify over time, often becoming perceived as biblical fact, even when they originate from sources outside the canonical texts. The stories surrounding Peter and Paul’s deaths are prime examples of this phenomenon. If you’re trying to reconcile your understanding of their deaths with what’s actually written, let’s address a fundamental question:
What information does the New Testament provide about the deaths of Peter and Paul? The answer is stark: Absolutely nothing.
The Book of Acts concludes with Paul alive in Rome, freely preaching the gospel (Acts 28:30–31). Remarkably, the deaths of Paul and the other eleven apostles (excluding Judas) are not recorded anywhere in the New Testament.
Yet, popular narratives about Peter and Paul’s deaths are prevalent. These commonly include:
- Their executions are linked to the year 64 CE and Nero’s brutal persecution of Christians, used as scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome.
- Peter was crucified upside down at his own request, believing himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus.
- Paul, as a Roman citizen, was beheaded, as Roman law exempted citizens from crucifixion.
So, where do these widely accepted details originate? While the New Testament canon is limited, numerous early Christian writings circulated in the first centuries CE, offering further stories and traditions. Among these were the Apostolic Acts, collections of tales about the apostles. Peter and Paul were particularly popular subjects. Remarkably, we have around fifteen different versions of Peter and Paul’s deaths – four focusing on Peter, five on Paul, and six recounting their stories together – all written by the 6th century CE. Furthermore, over 25 significant references to their deaths exist in other early Christian literature.1
Accounts Detailing Peter’s Death
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Peter (Acts of Peter 30–41) | Late 2nd–early 3rd centuries CE |
| 2. Pseudo-Linus, Martyrdom of Blessed Peter the Apostle | Late 4th–5th centuries CE |
| 3. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of St. Peter | Late 6th century CE |
| 4. History of Shimeon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles | 6th–7th centuries CE |
Accounts Detailing Paul’s Death
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Paul in Rome (Acts of Paul 14) | 2nd century CE |
| 2. Pseudo-Linus, Martyrdom of the Blessed Apostle Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 3. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul | 6th century CE |
| 4. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul | 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 5. The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head | 5th century CE |
Accounts Detailing Peter & Paul’s Deaths
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 2. Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 3. Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul | Late 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 4. Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul | Late 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 5. Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome | Late 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 6. Doctrine of the Apostles | 5th–6th centuries CE |
References to Peter and Paul’s Deaths in Other Christian Literature
| Reference | Date |
|---|---|
| 1 Clement 5:1–7 | 80–130 CE |
| Martyrdom & Ascension of Isaiah 4:2–4 | 100–130 CE |
| Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians 12:1–2 | 110–125 CE |
| Irenaeus of Lyons, Against the Heresies 3.1.1 | c. 174–189 CE |
| Muratorian Canon 34–39 | c. 3rd–4th century CE |
| Tertullian, Prescription against Heretics 36.2–3 | 203 CE |
| Tertullian, Antidote for the Scorpion’s Sting 15.2–3 | c. 211–212 CE |
| Peter of Alexandria, On Repentance/Canonical Epistle 9 | 306 CE |
| Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 2.5–6 | 313–316 CE |
| Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (Quoted in Eusebius)Ecclesiastical History 2.25.5–8 | c. 325 CE |
| Origen of Alexandria (Quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 | c. 325 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Against the Opponents of the Monastic Life 1.3 | c. 376 CE |
| John Chrysostom, On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15 | c. 390 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Homilies on 2 Timothy 10.1–2 | c. 393 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Homilies on Acts 46 | c. 400 CE |
| Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 | c. 389–391 CE |
| Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 | 392–393 CE |
The abundance of sources might suggest clarity, but navigating early Christian writings can be complex, akin to tracing numerous variations of a rapidly spreading story. So, how can we sift through this wealth of material to find answers about Peter’s death? A helpful approach is to start with the broader traditions and references in other early Christian literature. Focusing on these general details can streamline our investigation.
When and Where Did Peter Die?
Tradition places their deaths during Nero’s reign, around 64 CE. Let’s examine the support for this timeline. It’s crucial to note that this date predates the generally accepted authorship dates of the Gospels, making the absence of their deaths in the Gospels even more intriguing.
Which traditions claim Peter and Paul were executed on the same day in the same year?
| 1. The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
| 2. Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 3. Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 4. Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 5. Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 6. Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome |
| 7. Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 |
| 8. Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 |
| 9. Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 |
Which traditions suggest Peter and Paul were executed on the same day but in different years?
| 1. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul |
| 2. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
Which traditions place Peter and Paul’s executions in the same location?
| 1. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
| 2. Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
Remarkably, 14 accounts do not specify the relationship between their deaths at all.
Thus, while a majority of the dual accounts connect their executions to the same day and same year, they often differ on the location of their deaths and burials. However, most references remain silent on any specific connection between their deaths.
Furthermore, the 64 CE date isn’t universally accepted. The Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul places their deaths on June 29, 57 CE.
Who Ordered Peter’s Death and Why?
Robert Hubert (1733–1808). The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD. 1785. Oil on canvas. Musee des Beaux-Arts Andre Malraux, Le Havre, France. (Image credit: Mattes via Wikimedia)
Perhaps exploring the question of who ordered their deaths and why will provide more clarity. Nero reigned as emperor from 54–68 CE. While the date variations don’t necessarily negate the Nero connection, they do impact the association with his persecution following the Great Fire. However, even the Nero persecution narrative has historical questions surrounding it.
The Roman historian Tacitus, writing around 50 years after the events, recounts the Great Fire of Rome starting in July 64 CE in the Circus Maximus, lasting five days (Annals 15.44). He notes that public suspicion immediately fell on Nero, who, in turn, deflected blame onto the Christians, some of whom were brutally executed.
However, it’s questionable whether Christians in Rome in 64 CE were numerous or distinct enough to be credible scapegoats for Nero. For instance, in his correspondence with Emperor Trajan around 112 CE, Pliny the Younger mentions encountering accusations against a group called “Christians” that he was unfamiliar with. Trajan’s response indicates he also had no prior knowledge of this group. This is unlikely if Nero had famously blamed them for the Great Fire less than 50 years prior.
This doesn’t necessarily mean Christians weren’t among those blamed by Nero, or that Peter and/or Paul weren’t killed. However, it suggests Tacitus might be projecting the blame onto a group more recognizable to his audience around 115 CE, reflecting his own contemporary view of Christians, rather than an accurate historical depiction of Nero’s scapegoating a small, largely unknown Jewish sect for the fire.
A further complexity arises. While traditions often attribute Peter and Paul’s executions to irrational Roman rulers, our earliest source, 1 Clement 5:1–7 (c. 80–130 CE), connects both deaths to “unjust jealousy.” Similarly, John Chrysostom in the late 4th century CE attributed Paul’s execution to “those waging war against him” (On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15).
This brief examination reveals a lack of consensus surrounding Peter and Paul’s executions. The concise answer to “How did Peter in the Bible die?” is simply: we don’t know. However, to provide a more satisfying conclusion, let’s explore the unique details within the martyrdom traditions, focusing on why Peter requested to be crucified upside down and the peculiar story of Paul’s missing head.
Peter’s Martyrdom: The Upside-Down Crucifixion Explained
Peter’s narrative is often framed as a story of redemption after his denial of Jesus. Traditions suggest he angered Agrippa II and another man by advocating celibacy to their wives. Later accounts exaggerate this, claiming he promoted celibacy even among the wives of Roman senators – a notion that would understandably provoke those invested in Roman patriarchy.
Learning of a plot to execute him, Peter’s followers urged him to flee Rome. However, as he left, he encountered Christ. In the famous “Quo Vadis” ( “Where are you going?”) encounter, Jesus revealed he was returning to Rome to be crucified again. Peter, realizing his own destiny, returned to the city, was arrested, and requested to be crucified upside down.
But why upside down? The earliest account positions it within a context of Platonic dualism and mysticism, portraying his death as a symbolic rebirth. While the specific theological justifications vary across accounts, the 6th-century CE History of Shemon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles explains it as Peter wanting to symbolically kiss the place of Jesus’ feet. Origen and Jerome also reference this “humility” motif.
It’s worth noting that rumors linking this upside-down cross to the “Peace Symbol” are unfounded. In contemporary culture, the upside-down Petrine cross is more commonly associated with horror films and dark metal music as a symbol of the antichrist (see What is the Antichrist and is it in the Bible? for further reading) – a rather ironic modern interpretation.
Michelangelo. Crucifixion of Saint Peter. Fresco. Between 1546 and 1550. Vatican Museums. (Image credit: Arnaud 25 via Wikimedia)
Paul’s Martyrdom: The Mystery of the Missing Head
Paul’s martyrdom accounts echo the story of Eutychus in Acts 20. In these traditions, a servant of Nero, listening to Paul preach from a window, falls asleep and plummets to his death. Resurrected by Paul, the servant angers Nero by proclaiming Jesus as the “eternal king.” This revelation leads Nero to discover numerous Christians within his own bodyguard. Details diverge in later versions. In some, Paul is accused of converting Nero’s mistress, while in others, he converts nearly the entire palace. Ultimately, Nero orders the Christians arrested and Paul beheaded. Intriguingly, in some accounts, a post-mortem visit from Paul convinces Nero to release the remaining Christians!
A recurring and peculiar detail in several Paul traditions is the temporary loss of his head. While the duration and circumstances of its rediscovery vary, the head is eventually found and miraculously reattached to Paul’s body.
Conclusion: Tradition vs. Biblical Silence
While contemporary interest often focuses on the “historical Jesus,” our knowledge of Peter and Paul, paradoxically, is far less certain. Jesus’ death is recounted in the New Testament Gospels, yet the deaths of Paul and the remaining apostles are conspicuously absent. This absence, despite the wealth of extra-biblical traditions, appears to be a deliberate choice in the canonical texts. Perhaps the focus was intended to be on their lives and ministries, not their deaths. Perhaps, by the time the Gospels were written, the apostles had scattered, and reliable death narratives were unavailable. Or, perhaps the Gospel authors deemed the existing death traditions unreliable and consciously excluded them.
However, the enduring nature of the apostles’ martyrdom traditions, even two millennia later, underscores the frequent divergence between what believers expect to find in the Bible and what is actually written. It’s natural for Christians to anticipate biblical accounts of Peter and Paul’s deaths, especially given the abundance of post-biblical legends that seem to fit the narrative or align with desired beliefs. Ultimately, understanding the distinction between biblical text and tradition is crucial when exploring the question of “How Does Peter In The Bible Die.”
1 David Eastman (Translations & Introductions). The Ancient Martyrdom Accounts of Peter and Paul. (SBL Writings from the Greco-Roman World 39. SBL Press: Atlanta, 2015). This comprehensive work includes translations of numerous accounts and references, acknowledging that the list is likely not exhaustive.
