It’s a question that seems fundamental to Christian history: how did two of Jesus’ most prominent apostles, Peter and Paul, meet their end? Given the extensive and detailed accounts of Jesus’ crucifixion and the narratives surrounding the deaths of even minor figures in the New Testament, it’s natural to assume we’d find similar details about these pillars of the early church. We read about the grim demise of Judas (see How Did Judas Die?), the dramatic death of Herod Agrippa (Acts 12:23), the sudden judgment upon Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:1–11), and the unfortunate accident of Eutychus (Acts 20:9). Surely, the martyrdom of figures as central as Peter and Paul would be similarly documented, perhaps even mirroring the detailed account of Stephen’s martyrdom in Acts 7?
However, this assumption is far from reality. The stories of Peter and Paul’s deaths are a prime example of how traditions evolve and solidify over time, becoming ingrained as “known truths” – narratives we believe are biblically sourced, yet often are not. If you’re trying to reconcile your vague recollections of their deaths with the biblical record, you’re not alone. Let’s address a surprisingly simple yet crucial question:
What does the New Testament actually say about the deaths of Peter and Paul? The answer is stark: Absolutely nothing.
The Book of Acts, a key historical text in the New Testament, concludes with Paul alive in Rome, freely proclaiming his message (Acts 28:30–31). In fact, the New Testament remains silent on the deaths of all twelve apostles (excluding Judas).
Despite this biblical silence, popular tradition fills the void with vivid details:
- Their executions are placed around 64 CE, during Nero’s reign, coinciding with his brutal persecution of Christians, used as scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome.
- Peter was crucified upside down at his own request, deeming himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus.
- Paul, as a Roman citizen, was beheaded, a more “honorable” form of execution than crucifixion.
But where do these specific details originate? While the New Testament canon is limited, a wealth of early Christian writings circulated in the centuries following the apostles. Among these were the Apostolic Acts, collections of stories focusing on individual apostles or groups. Peter and Paul, unsurprisingly, were central figures in these narratives. Incredibly, we have at least fifteen different versions of Peter and Paul’s deaths documented by the 6th century CE – four focusing on Peter, five on Paul, and six recounting their stories together. Furthermore, over 25 significant references to their deaths appear in other early Christian literature.1
Accounts Detailing Peter’s Martyrdom
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Peter (Acts of Peter 30–41) | Late 2nd–early 3rd centuries CE |
| 2. Pseudo-Linus, Martyrdom of Blessed Peter the Apostle | Late 4th–5th centuries CE |
| 3. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of St. Peter | Late 6th century CE |
| 4. History of Shimeon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles | 6th–7th centuries CE |
Accounts Detailing Paul’s Martyrdom
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Paul in Rome (Acts of Paul 14) | 2nd century CE |
| 2. Pseudo-Linus, Martyrdom of the Blessed Apostle Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 3. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul | 6th century CE |
| 4. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul | 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 5. The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head | 5th century CE |
Accounts Detailing the Martyrdom of Both Peter & Paul
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 2. Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 3. Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul | Late 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 4. Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul | Late 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 5. Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome | Late 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 6. Doctrine of the Apostles | 5th–6th centuries CE |
References to Peter and Paul’s Deaths in Other Early Christian Literature
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1 Clement 5:1–7 | 80–130 CE |
| Martyrdom & Ascension of Isaiah 4:2–4 | 100–130 CE |
| Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians 12:1–2 | 110–125 CE |
| Irenaeus of Lyons, Against the Heresies 3.1.1 | c. 174–189 CE |
| Muratorian Canon 34–39 | c. 3rd–4th century CE |
| Tertullian, Prescription against Heretics 36.2–3 | 203 CE |
| Tertullian, Antidote for the Scorpion’s Sting 15.2–3 | c. 211–212 CE |
| Peter of Alexandria, On Repentance/Canonical Epistle 9 | 306 CE |
| Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 2.5–6 | 313–316 CE |
| Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (Quoted in Eusebius)Ecclesiastical History 2.25.5–8 | c. 325 CE |
| Origen of Alexandria (Quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 | c. 325 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Against the Opponents of the Monastic Life 1.3 | c. 376 CE |
| John Chrysostom, On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15 | c. 390 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Homilies on 2 Timothy 10.1–2 | c. 393 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Homilies on Acts 46 | c. 400 CE |
| Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 | c. 389–391 CE |
| Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 | 392–393 CE |
The sheer volume of accounts might suggest clarity, but navigating early Christian writings is akin to tracing the spread of a rumor – numerous versions and variations emerge, making definitive answers elusive.
To navigate this complex web of traditions, a strategic approach is necessary. Starting with the later, more widespread traditions and corroborating them with earlier references in other Christian literature can be more fruitful than diving directly into the diverse Apostolic Acts. This approach, focusing on the general consensus first, helps to filter through the variations and identify core elements of the story.
When and Where Did It Happen?
Let’s begin with location. Tradition firmly places the deaths of Peter and Paul in Rome, during the reign of Nero, around 64 CE. Let’s examine the evidence supporting this timeline. It’s important to remember that 64 CE predates the generally accepted dating of the earliest Gospels, making the New Testament’s silence on their deaths even more noteworthy.
Do the traditions align on the same day and same year for both executions?
| 1. The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
| 2. Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 3. Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 4. Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 5. Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 6. Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome |
| 7. Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 |
| 8. Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 |
| 9. Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 |
And what about traditions placing their deaths on the same day but in different years?
| 1. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul |
| 2. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
Finally, which accounts claim they were executed at the same place?
| 1. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
| 2. Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
A significant majority – 14 out of the referenced accounts – don’t specify any particular relationship between the timing or location of their deaths.
From the tables, we can observe that while many dual accounts place their executions on the same day of the same year, they often diverge on the location of their deaths and burials. However, most accounts remain silent on any specific connection.
Furthermore, the year 64 CE isn’t universally accepted. Intriguingly, the Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul, dating from the late 6th to early 7th centuries CE, explicitly states that both Peter and Paul were executed on June 29, 57 CE. This highlights the fluidity and variations within these traditions.
Who Ordered Their Deaths and Why?
Robert Hubert (1733–1808). The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD. 1785. Oil on canvas. Musee des Beaux-Arts Andre Malraux, Le Havre, France. (Image credit: Mattes via Wikimedia)
Shifting our focus to the perpetrators and motivations, we encounter further complexities. Nero reigned from 54–68 CE, so the date variations don’t necessarily negate the Nero connection. However, they do raise questions about the link to Nero’s persecution following the Great Fire of Rome. The historical narrative surrounding Nero and the Christians is itself contested.
The Roman historian Tacitus, writing around 50 years after the events, recounts the Great Fire of Rome in July 64 CE, starting in the Circus Maximus and raging for five days (Annals 15.44). Tacitus notes that public suspicion immediately fell upon Nero, and in response, Nero deflected blame onto the Christians, subjecting some to brutal punishments, including being thrown to animals and burned alive.
However, the notion of Christians being a prominent and recognizable group in Rome as early as 64 CE, capable of serving as a credible scapegoat, is debatable. Consider Pliny the Younger’s correspondence with Emperor Trajan in 112 CE, nearly half a century later. Pliny, encountering accusations against a group he admits to knowing nothing about, called “Christians,” seeks guidance from Trajan. Trajan’s reply reveals his own unfamiliarity with this group. This scenario is difficult to reconcile with the idea of Nero famously blaming Christians for the Great Fire just decades prior.
This doesn’t dismiss the possibility of Christians being among those Nero blamed, or that Peter and/or Paul were executed during his reign. However, it suggests that Tacitus’ account might reflect his contemporary understanding of Christians around 115 CE, rather than an accurate historical portrayal of 64 CE. Tacitus may be projecting the image of a well-known group onto the events of the past, aligning with his own likely negative perception of Christians, rather than depicting a small, obscure sect of Jewish origin being held responsible for the fire.
Adding another layer of complexity, the earliest reference to Peter and Paul’s executions, 1 Clement 5:1–7 (c. 80–130 CE), attributes both deaths to “unjust jealousy.” Similarly, in the late 4th century CE, John Chrysostom attributed Paul’s execution to “those waging war against him” (On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15). These accounts suggest motivations beyond Nero’s scapegoating, possibly pointing to internal conflicts or opposition to their teachings.
In summary, there’s no unified, definitive account of Peter and Paul’s executions. The simple answer to “How did they die?” is: We don’t definitively know. However, to provide a more complete picture, let’s explore the unique details within the martyrdom traditions, specifically addressing why Peter is said to have requested upside-down crucifixion and the curious tale of Paul’s missing head.
Peter’s Martyrdom Tradition: Why Crucified Upside Down?
Peter’s narrative is often framed as a story of redemption following his denial of Jesus. Tradition suggests his teachings, particularly on celibacy, angered local figures like King Agrippa II and others whose wives were influenced. Later, embellished versions claim Peter’s advocacy of celibacy extended to the wives of Roman senators, understandably provoking the Roman patriarchy.
Facing an execution plot, Peter’s followers urged him to flee Rome. However, as he escaped, he encountered a vision of Christ. Inquiring “Quo Vadis?” (“Where are you going?”), Peter was told that Jesus was returning to Rome to be crucified again. Interpreting this as a sign, Peter understood his destiny was martyrdom in Rome. He returned, was arrested, and, according to tradition, requested to be crucified upside down.
The reason behind the upside-down crucifixion evolves across accounts. The earliest versions connect it to complex theological ideas of Platonic dualism and mysticism, portraying his death as a symbolic rebirth. Later accounts, like the 6th-century History of Shemon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles, attribute it to humility, with Peter feeling unworthy to die in the same manner as Christ, symbolically kissing the ground where Jesus’ feet had been. Origen and Jerome also reference this humility motif.
It’s worth noting that the popular rumor linking the upside-down cross to the “Peace Symbol” is unfounded. In contemporary culture, the upside-down Petrine cross is more often associated with horror films and dark metal music, ironically becoming a symbol of the antichrist (see What is the Antichrist and is it in the Bible? for more) – a stark contrast to its intended meaning.
Paul’s Martyrdom Tradition: The Mystery of the Missing Head
Paul’s martyrdom narrative shares intriguing parallels with the biblical story of Eutychus in Acts 20. In Paul’s tradition, a servant of Nero, perhaps a cupbearer, falls asleep while listening to Paul and plunges to his death from a window. Paul resurrects the servant, but this miracle backfires when the resurrected servant declares Jesus as the “eternal king,” angering Nero. This revelation leads Nero to discover numerous Christians within his own bodyguard. Similar to Peter’s story, later versions elaborate, sometimes claiming Paul converted Nero’s mistress or even much of the palace. Ultimately, Nero orders the arrest of Christians and Paul’s beheading. Interestingly, some accounts claim a posthumous visit from Paul convinced Nero to release the other imprisoned Christians.
A particularly unique and recurring motif in Paul’s traditions is the bizarre episode of his lost head. While the duration and circumstances of its disappearance vary, the narrative consistently includes the head being lost and miraculously rediscovered, eventually rejoining Paul’s body. This strange detail underscores the legendary and embellished nature of these martyrdom accounts.
Conclusion: Beyond Biblical Narrative
While contemporary focus often centers on the “historical Jesus,” our knowledge of figures like Peter and Paul, paradoxically, is far less certain. Jesus’ death is recounted in all four Gospels, yet the deaths of Paul and the remaining apostles are absent from the New Testament. This absence, given the wealth of post-biblical traditions, seems to be a deliberate editorial choice. Perhaps the focus was intended to be on their lives and ministries, not their deaths. Alternatively, by the time the Gospels were written, the apostles had dispersed, and reliable information about their deaths may have been unavailable. Or perhaps, the Gospel authors deemed the existing death traditions too unreliable to include.
The enduring nature of these martyrdom traditions, almost two millennia later, highlights the gap between popular Christian belief and the actual content of the Bible. It’s understandable for believers to expect biblical accounts of Peter and Paul’s deaths, especially when so many compelling legends and post-biblical narratives seem to fit and align with what they desire to be true. However, the historical reality is that the details surrounding the deaths of these foundational figures remain shrouded in tradition and uncertainty, rather than clearly documented within the pages of the New Testament itself.
1 David Eastman (Translations & Introductions). The Ancient Martyrdom Accounts of Peter and Paul. (SBL Writings from the Greco-Roman World 39. SBL Press: Atlanta, 2015). He includes translations of all the accounts and references here, along with several more references and admits his list is probably not exhaustive.
