It’s a question that seems fundamental to Christian history: how did Peter, one of Jesus’s closest apostles, meet his end? Given the Bible’s detailed accounts of Jesus’s crucifixion and even the deaths of lesser-known figures like Judas, Herod Agrippa, and Ananias and Sapphira, it’s natural to assume the demise of such a pivotal apostle would also be recorded. Perhaps you envision a narrative similar to Stephen’s martyrdom in Acts 7, filled with dramatic details and theological significance.
Michelangelo. Crucifixion of Saint Peter. Fresco. Between 1546 and 1550. Vatican Museums. (Image credit: Arnaud 25 via Wikimedia)
However, the answer to the question “How Did Peter Die In The Bible” is surprisingly absent from the biblical text itself. This absence highlights how traditions evolve over time, often becoming ingrained as “known truths,” stories we believe to be biblically based but are actually rooted in later accounts. The deaths of Peter and Paul are prime examples of such narratives. If you’re trying to reconcile your understanding of their deaths with the biblical record, let’s address a crucial point directly.
What the New Testament Doesn’t Say About Peter’s Death
What does the New Testament actually say about the deaths of Peter and Paul? The stark answer is: nothing. The Book of Acts, which chronicles the early church’s expansion, concludes with Paul in Rome, alive and actively preaching (Acts 28:30–31). Remarkably, the New Testament is silent on the deaths of all twelve apostles (excluding Judas Iscariot).
This silence is particularly striking when we consider the detailed death accounts of other individuals within the New Testament. We learn of Judas’s suicide, Herod Agrippa’s divine punishment, the sudden deaths of Ananias and Sapphira, and even the accidental death of Eutychus, who fell from a window while Paul preached. If these figures, some of whom played less savory roles, have their deaths described, why is there no mention of the apostles’ final days, especially Peter and Paul, pillars of the early church? One might expect at least a mention akin to Stephen’s martyrdom, yet the New Testament remains conspicuously silent.
The Emergence of Traditions Surrounding Peter’s Death
Despite the biblical silence, vivid stories about Peter and Paul’s deaths have circulated for centuries. The most common narratives include:
- Their executions occurred around 64 CE during Nero’s persecution of Christians, a scapegoat tactic following the Great Fire of Rome.
- Peter was crucified upside down, deeming himself unworthy of a crucifixion identical to Jesus.
- Paul, as a Roman citizen, was beheaded instead of crucified.
Where do these widely accepted details originate? While the New Testament canon is limited, early Christianity produced a wealth of writings, including Apostolic Acts – collections of stories about the apostles. Among these, tales of Peter and Paul were exceptionally popular. Astonishingly, we have around fifteen distinct accounts of Peter and Paul’s deaths, written by the 6th century CE – four focusing on Peter, five on Paul, and six recounting their stories together. Furthermore, over 25 significant references to their deaths appear throughout other early Christian literature.
Accounts of Peter
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Peter (Acts of Peter 30–41) | Late 2nd–early 3rd centuries CE |
| 2. Pseudo-Linus, Martyrdom of Blessed Peter the Apostle | Late 4th–5th centuries CE |
| 3. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of St. Peter | Late 6th century CE |
| 4. History of Shimeon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles | 6th–7th centuries CE |
Accounts of Paul
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Paul in Rome (Acts of Paul 14) | 2nd century CE |
| 2. Pseudo-Linus, Martyrdom of the Blessed Apostle Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 3. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul | 6th century CE |
| 4. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul | 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 5. The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head | 5th century CE |
Accounts of Peter & Paul
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1. Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 2. Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul | 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 3. Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul | Late 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 4. Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul | Late 6th–7th centuries CE |
| 5. Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome | Late 5th–6th centuries CE |
| 6. Doctrine of the Apostles | 5th–6th centuries CE |
References in Other Christian Literature
| Date | |
|---|---|
| 1 Clement 5:1–7 | 80–130 CE |
| Martyrdom & Ascension of Isaiah 4:2–4 | 100–130 CE |
| Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians 12:1–2 | 110–125 CE |
| Irenaeus of Lyons, Against the Heresies 3.1.1 | c. 174–189 CE |
| Muratorian Canon 34–39 | c. 3rd–4th century CE |
| Tertullian, Prescription against Heretics 36.2–3 | 203 CE |
| Tertullian, Antidote for the Scorpion’s Sting 15.2–3 | c. 211–212 CE |
| Peter of Alexandria, On Repentance/Canonical Epistle 9 | 306 CE |
| Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 2.5–6 | 313–316 CE |
| Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (Quoted in Eusebius)Ecclesiastical History 2.25.5–8 | c. 325 CE |
| Origen of Alexandria (Quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 | c. 325 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Against the Opponents of the Monastic Life 1.3 | c. 376 CE |
| John Chrysostom, On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15 | c. 390 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Homilies on 2 Timothy 10.1–2 | c. 393 CE |
| John Chrysostom, Homilies on Acts 46 | c. 400 CE |
| Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 | c. 389–391 CE |
| Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 | 392–393 CE |
The sheer volume of accounts might suggest clarity, but in the realm of early Christian writings, numerous versions and variations often complicate matters. Disentangling these narratives to find a definitive answer requires a strategic approach. Examining later traditions and general references in other early Christian literature can be a more efficient starting point.
When and Where Were Peter and Paul Executed?
Let’s begin with the location. Tradition firmly places their deaths in Rome, associating them with Nero’s reign around 64 CE. This date is significant as it precedes the generally accepted authorship dates of the Gospels, making the absence of their deaths in the New Testament even more perplexing.
Do the traditions concur that Peter and Paul died on the same day of the same year?
| 1. The Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
| 2. Pseudo-Marcellus, Passion of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 3. Acts of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 4. Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 5. Pseudo-Dionysius, Epistle to Timothy on the Death of the Apostles Peter and Paul |
| 6. Teaching of Shimeon Kepha in the City of Rome |
| 7. Papias & Dionysius of Corinth (quoted in Eusebius) Ecclesiastical History 3.1 |
| 8. Jerome, Tractate on the Psalms 96:10 |
| 9. Jerome, On Illustrious Men 1, 5 |
Traditions suggesting Peter and Paul died on the same day but in different years are fewer:
| 1. Pseudo-Abdias, Passion of Saint Paul |
| 2. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
Even fewer traditions claim they died in the same location:
| 1. A History of the Holy Apostle My Lord Paul |
| 2. Martyrdom of Paul the Apostle and the Discovery of His Severed Head |
A significant number of accounts—14 out of the available references—don’t specify the relationship between their deaths at all.
While many dual accounts place their executions on the same day in the same year, they typically differ on burial locations. Furthermore, the date of 64 CE is not universally accepted. Intriguingly, the Passion of the Apostles Peter and Paul places their deaths earlier, on June 29, 57 CE.
Who Ordered the Execution and Why?
Robert Hubert (1733–1808). The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD. 1785. Oil on canvas. Musee des Beaux-Arts Andre Malraux, Le Havre, France. (Image credit: Mattes via Wikimedia)
Nero reigned as emperor from 54–68 CE. While the date variations don’t negate the Nero connection, they do impact the association with his infamous persecution following the Great Fire. However, the narrative of Nero blaming Christians for the fire is itself questionable.
The Roman historian Tacitus, writing around 50 years after the event, describes the Great Fire of Rome in July 64 CE, which raged for five days (Annals 15.44). He recounts that public suspicion immediately fell upon Nero, who, in turn, deflected blame onto the Christians. Tacitus mentions Nero subjecting some Christians to brutal deaths, including being thrown to animals and burned alive.
However, it’s unlikely that Christians were a prominent and recognizable group in Rome by 64 CE to serve as credible scapegoats. Consider Pliny the Younger’s correspondence with Emperor Trajan in 112 CE, almost 50 years later. Pliny describes encountering accusations against a group he was unfamiliar with, called “Christians.” Trajan’s response indicates he too was unacquainted with this group. This scenario is improbable if, less than 50 years prior, Nero had famously blamed Christians for the Great Fire.
This doesn’t dismiss the possibility that some Christians were caught up in Nero’s scapegoating, or that Peter and/or Paul were executed during his reign. However, Tacitus’s account may reflect his contemporary understanding of Christians around 115 CE, rather than an accurate historical depiction of 64 CE. He might be projecting the characteristics of a more established and known Christian group onto a smaller, less defined group from the earlier period.
Adding further complexity, the earliest reference to Peter and Paul’s executions, 1 Clement 5:1–7 (c. 80–130 CE), attributes both deaths to “unjust jealousy.” Similarly, John Chrysostom in the late 4th century CE argued that Paul’s execution stemmed from those “waging war against him” (On the Praises of Saint Paul 4.15). These accounts suggest motivations beyond Nero’s scapegoating after the fire.
In essence, there’s no single, universally accepted account of Peter and Paul’s executions. The concise answer to “how did peter die in the bible?” remains: we don’t definitively know from biblical sources. However, to provide a more complete picture, we can explore the unique details within the traditions surrounding their individual martyrdoms, specifically addressing why Peter supposedly requested upside-down crucifixion.
Why Upside Down? Peter’s Martyrdom Tradition
Peter’s story is often framed as one of redemption following his denial of Jesus. Tradition suggests he angered King Agrippa II and another man by advocating celibacy to their wives. Later variations amplify this, claiming Peter’s teachings on celibacy reached the wives of Roman senators – a notion that would certainly provoke Roman patriarchal authorities.
Facing an execution plot, Peter’s followers urged him to flee Rome. However, as he escaped, he encountered Christ. In the famous “Quo Vadis” (Latin for “Where are you going?”) narrative, Peter asked Jesus where he was headed. Jesus responded that he was going to Rome to be crucified again. Understanding this as a sign of his own destiny, Peter returned to Rome, was arrested, and requested to be crucified upside down.
The rationale behind the upside-down crucifixion varies. The earliest accounts interpret it theologically, linking it to Platonic dualism and mysticism, portraying death as a form of spiritual birth. The specific reasoning evolves across different versions, but by the 6th century CE History of Shemon Kepha the Chief of the Apostles, the upside-down posture is explained as Peter symbolically kissing the place of Jesus’s feet, an act of humility. Origen and Jerome also reference this “humility” tradition.
It’s worth noting that rumors connecting the upside-down Petrine cross to the “Peace Symbol” are unfounded. In contemporary culture, the upside-down cross is often associated with horror films and dark metal music, ironically becoming a symbol of the antichrist – a stark contrast to its intended meaning of humility and martyrdom.
Conclusion: Tradition vs. Biblical Silence
While the quest for the “historical Jesus” receives considerable attention, the lives and deaths of pivotal figures like Peter and Paul remain less certain. Jesus’s death is recounted in the New Testament Gospels, yet the Bible is silent on the deaths of Peter and the other apostles. This absence, juxtaposed with the wealth of post-biblical traditions, suggests a deliberate choice in the formation of the New Testament canon.
Perhaps the focus was intentionally placed on the apostles’ lives and ministries rather than their deaths. Alternatively, by the time the Gospels were written, the apostles had dispersed, and reliable accounts of their deaths were unavailable or deemed untrustworthy. Whatever the reason, the continued circulation of martyrdom traditions for nearly two millennia underscores a crucial point: a significant gap often exists between what believers expect to find in the Bible and what is actually present. The enduring narratives surrounding Peter and Paul’s deaths highlight the power of tradition in shaping religious understanding, even when those traditions lack explicit biblical support.
[1] David Eastman (Translations & Introductions). The Ancient Martyrdom Accounts of Peter and Paul. (SBL Writings from the Greco-Roman World 39. SBL Press: Atlanta, 2015). He includes translations of all the accounts and references here, along with several more references and admits his list is probably not exhaustive.
