Peter I, widely known as Peter The Great Of Russia, reigned as Tsar from 1682–1725, jointly at first with his half-brother Ivan V, and then as sole ruler. In 1721, he was proclaimed Emperor (Imperator), marking a significant shift in Russia’s imperial ambitions. Peter the Great stands as one of Russia’s most transformative leaders, a statesman and reformer whose relentless drive modernized his country and propelled it onto the world stage as a major European power.
Born Pyotr Alekseyevich in Moscow on June 9, 1672 (May 30, Old Style), Peter’s life began amidst the opulent yet tradition-bound world of the Russian Tsardom. He died in St. Petersburg on February 8, 1725 (January 28, Old Style) at the age of 52, leaving behind a Russia irrevocably changed by his ambitious reforms and vision. His legacy is complex, marked by both admiration for his modernizing zeal and criticism for his autocratic methods. Nevertheless, Peter the Great’s impact on Russia’s political, social, and cultural landscape remains undeniable.
Peter was the son of Tsar Alexis and his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. Unlike his half-brothers from his father’s first marriage, Peter was a robust and curious child. His mother’s upbringing, guided by Artamon Sergeyevich Matveyev, exposed him to Western influences early in life, setting the stage for his later fascination with European advancements. This exposure differentiated young Peter from typical Russian nobility and nurtured his inquisitive nature.
Early Life and Rise to Power of Peter the Great
Peter’s childhood was significantly shaped by political intrigue and family dynamics. When Tsar Alexis died in 1676, Peter was only four years old. His frail elder half-brother, Fyodor III, ascended the throne. However, real power resided with the Miloslavsky family, relatives of Fyodor’s mother, who deliberately marginalized Peter and the Naryshkin faction. This early experience of political maneuvering and power struggles profoundly affected Peter’s perception of the Russian court and nobility.
Upon Fyodor’s death in 1682, a fierce power struggle erupted between the Miloslavskys and the Naryshkins. The Miloslavskys advocated for the ascension of Fyodor’s brother, the weak-minded Ivan V, while the Naryshkins championed the intelligent and healthy Peter. Representatives from various societal orders in the Kremlin initially declared Peter Tsar. However, the Miloslavsky faction instigated a revolt by the Moscow streltsy, the Tsar’s musketeers, who brutally murdered some of Peter’s supporters, including Matveyev. In a compromise, Ivan and Peter were proclaimed joint Tsars, with Sophia, Ivan’s sister, becoming regent due to Ivan’s poor health and Peter’s youth.
Sophia, a shrewd and ambitious woman, effectively sidelined Peter from governance. Growing up in Preobrazhenskoye village near Moscow with his mother, Peter lived under constant threat, fostering a deep distrust of the streltsy. This period of exclusion from formal court life ironically contributed to Peter’s unique development.
Peter’s unconventional upbringing meant he lacked the traditional education of a Russian Tsar. Instead of being confined by palace protocols, he experienced a more liberated environment. His tutor, Nikita Zotov, a former church clerk, provided basic instruction but couldn’t fully satisfy Peter’s thirst for knowledge. Peter gravitated towards outdoor activities and military games, developing a keen interest in weaponry and military affairs. He also engaged in practical skills like carpentry, blacksmithing, and even printing, showcasing a hands-on approach to learning.
The nemetskaya sloboda, or “German colony,” near Preobrazhenskoye, became a significant influence. Interactions with its foreign inhabitants sparked Peter’s curiosity about other cultures and technologies. The discovery of a derelict English sailboat ignited his lifelong passion for seafaring. Mathematics, fortification, and navigation became his preferred subjects. He built a model fortress for amusement and formed “play” troops, which evolved into the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky Guards regiments in 1687 – the foundation of the modern Russian army.
In early 1689, his mother arranged Peter’s marriage to Eudoxia Lopukhina. This was a strategic move to signal Peter’s maturity and claim to sole rule. However, the marriage was short-lived, and Peter later forced Eudoxia into a convent in 1698.
A streltsy revolt in August 1689 became Sophia’s opportunity for a coup. This time, however, events favored Peter. He decisively removed Sophia from power, banishing her to a nunnery. While Ivan V remained co-tsar nominally, Peter and his Naryshkin relatives assumed control. Peter continued his military and naval pursuits, even constructing seaworthy ships – these “games” were crucial preparation for his future endeavors as Peter the Great, the reforming Tsar.
Peter the Great’s Foreign Policy and the Azov Campaigns
At the commencement of Peter the Great’s reign, Russia was geographically vast but landlocked, lacking access to the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, or Baltic Sea. Securing an outlet to the sea became Peter’s primary foreign policy objective. He understood that maritime access was crucial for trade, military power, and Russia’s integration into European affairs.
The Azov campaigns of 1695–96 were the initial steps towards this goal, targeting Azov, a fortress controlled by Crimean Tatars, vassals of the Ottoman Empire. These campaigns served multiple purposes. Firstly, they fulfilled Russia’s obligations to the anti-Turkish Holy League of 1684 (comprising Austria, Poland, and Venice), commitments made during Sophia’s regency. Secondly, they aimed to secure Russia’s southern borders against Tatar raids. Most importantly, they were a strategic move towards gaining access to the Black Sea and expanding Russia’s influence southward.
The first Azov campaign in 1695 was unsuccessful, highlighting Russia’s naval weakness. However, Peter’s determination was unshaken. He immediately initiated the construction of a Russian fleet at Voronezh, designed to navigate the Don River. In the second Azov campaign of 1696, with the newly built fleet, Azov was captured, marking Russia’s first significant victory under Peter’s rule and providing a foothold on the Sea of Azov. To solidify this achievement, Taganrog was established on the Don estuary’s northern shore, and Peter commenced building a larger, more formidable Russian navy, recognizing naval power as essential for Russia’s future as a great power.
Peter the Great’s early reign, marked by his unconventional upbringing and the Azov campaigns, laid the groundwork for his ambitious reforms and his transformation of Russia into a modern empire. His focus on military modernization, naval development, and expansionist foreign policy defined his rule and left an enduring mark on Russian history.
